The Spanish War of Independence: Resistance and Ideologies

The Spanish War of Independence

The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm forecasts that Napoleon's invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities such as Girona, Zaragoza, and Tarragona, subjected to sieges by French troops, pinned down the French army and prevented progress towards the Levant.

Moreover, the defeat of the invaders in Bailén forced José I to leave Madrid, and much of the imperial army retreated north of the Ebro. Napoleon went to Spain in November to lead the counteroffensive. In January 1809, Joseph I returned to Madrid, and by 1809, French rule spread throughout Spain.

Guerrilla Warfare and Spanish Resistance

Resistance to the invasion was carried out by the guerrillas, small local groups. Its members were farmers, artisans, students, lawyers, etc., although its leaders usually belonged to the educated elites. The guerrillas harassed the army by surprise, subjecting the French to constant pressure and attrition.

Turning Point: 1812 and the End of the Conflict

In 1812, the course of the war was affected by Napoleon's campaign in Russia, which forced him to withdraw thousands of troops from the peninsula. In response, the Spanish troops and the guerrillas, backed by the British army under General Wellington, achieved victory at Arapiles (Salamanca, July 1812). Unable to maintain both fronts, Napoleon decided to agree to end the conflict with the Spanish and allow the return of Fernando VII through the Treaty of Valençay. By late 1813, his troops began to leave the Peninsula.

Ideological Currents and Political Factions

The French invasion forced the different ideological currents to take sides regarding the French presence. A minority of Spaniards, known as Francophiles, collaborated with the monarchy of Joseph I. Mostly from enlightened despotism, they were linked to its reform program and used a strong power to modernize Spain, without the risk of revolutionary excesses.

The bulk of the Spanish population formed what is known as the Patriotic Front. This camp brought together very different positions. Most of the clergy and the nobility wanted a return to absolutism under the monarchy of Ferdinand VII and rejected all social change. Some enlightened individuals thought that the return of Fernando VII could undertake a program of reforms and modernization of the country within the channels of the Old Regime. Liberals saw the war as an opportunity to make a change in the political system, the opportunity to establish in Spain a liberal political system based on a constitution as the supreme norm of national sovereignty, the division of powers, representative institutions, and the abolition of feudal privileges and unions to promote the development of capitalism.

Beyond these ideological positions, much of the population faced the war as a defense and resistance movement against the invaders, but most defended the return of Fernando VII.