The Spanish War of Independence: Napoleon, Cortes, and 1812

The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)

End of Carlos IV's Reign and French Influence

When the French Revolution broke out and Louis XVI was executed, Spain, like other European monarchies, initially declared war on revolutionary France. Spain later had to sign the Treaties of San Ildefonso in 1796 and 1800. These treaties made Spain and France allies against the British Empire. In 1805, the Anglo-Portuguese alliance was reinforced by the defeat of Spain and France in the naval Battle of Trafalgar.

Napoleon wanted to occupy Portugal. Manuel Godoy, Carlos IV's prime minister, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) with France, which allowed French troops to cross Spain on their way to Portugal. French armies occupied several Spanish cities along the way, which led to the Mutiny of Aranjuez in March 1808. Godoy was deposed, and Carlos IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon then called an assembly in Bayonne, where Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

The War of Independence Begins

A popular uprising on May 2nd, 1808, in Madrid marked the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence. The Spanish population divided into two main groups: the Afrancesados, who recognized Joseph I as king, and the Fernandinos, who remained loyal to Ferdinand VII.

While the French army was better equipped, Spanish guerrillas attacked them continuously. Up to late 1808, the French laid siege to Zaragoza and Girona but were defeated at Bailén. From late 1808 to 1812, Napoleon's troops occupied nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula. However, from 1812 to 1814, France suffered military decline in the region. Ultimately, the French were defeated, and Ferdinand VII returned to the throne.

The Parliament of Cadiz

In areas loyal to Ferdinand VII, local governments called Juntas were created to organize resistance against Joseph Bonaparte. Later, the Junta Central Suprema (Supreme Central Junta) was formed. The Junta Central called for a Constituent Parliament. This assembly met in Cádiz, the only city on the Iberian Peninsula not occupied by the French.

There were three main groups among the deputies:

• Liberals, who favored political reform;
• Conservatives, who supported absolutism;
• Some deputies representing the American colonies.

Parliamentary Legislation

The Parliament produced the Constitution of 1812, which was the first Spanish constitution. It also passed reforms that aimed to end the Old Regime.

Key Principles of the Cadiz Constitution

The Constitution of 1812 recognized national sovereignty, asserting that power belonged to the nation and was exercised through its representatives. It established a moderate hereditary monarchy in which the king approved laws and adopted the principle of separation of powers. Key aspects included:

• Legislative power was held by the king and a single-chamber parliament;
• Executive power was held by the king, who appointed ministers, managed foreign relations, and declared war on other nations;
• Judicial power was held by courts of justice;
• It established Catholicism as the only religion of Spain.

The Constitution of 1812 also established several important rights for citizens.