Spanish War of Independence and the Cadiz Courts

The Peninsular War: A Turning Point

The anticipated submission in 1810 did not occur, leading to the creation of four military governments in northern Spain, separating Madrid's government.

In the spring of 1812, the war took a decisive turn. What initially seemed straightforward became a quagmire, forcing Napoleon to maintain a large number of troops needed for the Russian front. The withdrawal of troops risked disaster for France. In July 1812, General Wellington, leading British, Portuguese, and Spanish troops, aided by guerrillas, defeated the French at Arapiles. They were expelled from Andalusia and entered Madrid. Although a new French counteroffensive temporarily reversed the situation, Wellington's strategy proved effective.

In the spring of 1813, the British General launched a new attack. The French retreated to Vitoria, suffering a significant defeat at the Battle of San Marcial. Also defeated in Russia and Germany, Napoleon reached an agreement with Alfonso VII, who regained the crown of Spain through the Treaty of Valençay.

The Revolutionary Program of the Courts of Cadiz

Call and Composition of the Courts

Although the idea of a general court meeting to reorganize public life in the power vacuum had been considered, the regency did not convene it until news of the establishment of local authorities in America reached Cadiz, potentially jeopardizing the Spanish empire. The court opened its sessions in September 1810, with deputies swearing to defend the integrity of the Spanish nation. Due to the hardships of war, the nobility and church hierarchy were only sparsely represented in Cadiz. Delegates from the occupied provinces were also absent; alternates were sought in Cadiz, as well as representatives from Spanish America.

The middle classes, including intellectuals, ecclesiastics, lawyers, military personnel, and academics, predominated in the court, but there were no representatives from the working classes or women. As a constituent assembly assuming sovereignty, the deputies initiated the liberal revolution of Cadiz, granting equal rights to all citizens, including those in America, transforming Spain and its colonies into a single nation on both sides of the ocean.

Two major tendencies emerged in the courts: the Liberals, who favored reform, and the "serviles," who aimed to maintain the old monarchical order. The press largely supported the Liberals, while the church pulpits favored absolutism.