Spanish Modernism and the Generation of 98 Literature

Modernism in Spanish Literature

Modernism originated in Latin America with José Martí and Rubén Darío, who eventually brought the movement to Spain. It served as a reaction against realism, naturalism, and positivism. Key features include a rejection of traditional rules, the worship of beauty, and a focus on art for minorities.

Aesthetic Principles and Themes

Modernism sought reform and novelty, defending freedom and originality through various European currents:

• Neoromanticism: Bohemian reflection.
• Parnassianism: A return to clarity and form.
• Symbolism: Idealism and mystery.
• Spanish Middle Ages: A model of inspiration.

Themes often include fantasy worlds, exotic and oriental settings, and Greco-Roman mythology (nymphs and gods). Sensuality and the femme fatale—beautiful yet perverse—are prominent, alongside cosmopolitanism (Paris and Vienna), dandyism, and a sense of pessimism and sadness.

Chronology of the Movement

• Introduction: José Martí, Salvador Rueda, and Francisco Villaespesa.
• Wholeness: Rubén Darío, Eduardo Marquina, and Manuel Machado (who added Andalucismo).
• Final: Marked by the death of Rubén Darío and the official publication of Diary of a Newly Married Poet by Juan Ramón Jiménez.

The Works of Rubén Darío

Darío's prose includes newspaper articles and short stories. His poetic legacy is defined by three major works:

• Azul: Published in Chile; influenced by Francophile culture, it addresses Hispanic existential problems. The color blue symbolizes the modernist dream and desire.
• Prosas Profanas: Published in Buenos Aires; represents the culmination of Modernism with its exoticism and melancholy.
• Cantos de Vida y Esperanza: Published in Madrid; the swan symbol reflects existential doubt.

The Generation of 98

The Generation of 98 was defined by a deep concern for the "problem of Spain" following the colonial disaster. Their language was often gloomy, and their primary medium was the essay. They shared liberal political ideas and focused on recurring existential and philosophical themes.

Poetry and Key Authors

Poetry in this era expressed intimate feelings and a "discovery of Spain" through the landscape of Castile. There was a preference for content over form, characterized by popular taste, restlessness regarding death, and pessimism.

Miguel de Unamuno

Unamuno's work focuses on the sorrow of death and eternity, the search for God, and the mystic landscapes of Castile. Notable works include The Christ of Velázquez and The Prayer of the Atheist.

Ramón María del Valle-Inclán

His evolution moved from the Modernism of Aromas de leyenda to the transcendental themes of The Passenger, eventually reaching the tragic and grotesque style of The Kif Pipe.

Antonio Machado

Machado utilized the sonnet and the couplet to turn emotion into poetry. His work often reflects on his personal life, such as the death of his wife Leonor, and a pessimistic view of national reality.

Machado's Symbolic Language

• Garden: The lost paradise of childhood.
• Path: Human destiny.
• Fountain: Time, innocence, or weariness.
• Earth: Reality.
• Afternoon: Melancholy and the premonition of death.
• Mirrors: Memories and dreams.
• Fire: Love.

Major Works

Soledades (later recast as Soledades, Galerías y otros poemas) represents a sad, tired, and bitter tone. Campos de Castilla offers a tragic and negative vision of Spain, while Nuevas canciones focuses on traditional folk poetry.