The Spanish Empire: Conquest, Culture, and Decline

Spanish America: Conquest and Colonization

The conquest of the Americas by Spain was carried out through a system of capitulaciones, contracts, and agreements. These arrangements stipulated that individuals would find and assemble the necessary resources for expeditions, in exchange for a share of the gains obtained. The Antilles were occupied by 1515. Hernán Cortés achieved dominion over the Aztec Empire, while Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. Both were confederations of peoples dedicated to agriculture, possessing advanced culture and astronomical knowledge.

The settlers faced significant challenges, including the harsh impact of diseases and demanding labor. The Spanish monarchs legislated to protect the Indigenous peoples, though the great distance and the priority of maintaining control often favored abuses of resources and power.

Government and Administration of Spanish America

The Council of the Indies advised the monarch, drafted laws for the Americas, and appointed officials. The Casa de Contratación, located in Seville, managed all trade with the Americas. To facilitate administration, the following territorial institutions were established:

• Viceroyalties: By the sixteenth century, there were two major viceroyalties: New Spain and Peru.
• Audiencias: These were high courts of justice.
• Gobernaciones: Provinces within a viceroyalty, each ruled by a governor.
• Corregimientos: Districts managed by corregidors.
• Encomiendas: For territories with agricultural parcels and Christianized Indigenous populations, these were governed by encomenderos.

Spain's Golden Century: Culture and Decline

Despite a period of generalized decline, Spain experienced a significant artistic and cultural flourishing known as the Golden Century (Siglo de Oro), which spanned from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. Cultural production, however, was influenced and sometimes curtailed by the doctrines of the Counter-Reformation, stemming from the Council of Trent.

Catholic orthodoxy deeply permeated the life and thought of Spaniards, who were imbued with social values such as honor and honra. There was a general rejection of manual labor and a prevalence of religious and cultural prejudices, which often led to accusations of heresy by the Inquisition. Principal sources of formation for the largely illiterate population included the Church, traditional thought, and popular spectacles like theater. Universities were largely controlled by the Church and focused on scholastic and theological studies.

Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe

Spanish foreign policy underwent significant shifts. Initially, a more peaceful approach positioned Spain as a precarious royal ally. A double marital agreement with France and peace with England provided a temporary respite for the Spanish. However, policy soon shifted back to belligerent stances, leading to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618.

In this conflict, Spain defended the Catholic cause and the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 marked the independence of the Netherlands and the eventual replacement of the Habsburgs by the French Bourbons. Conflicts with France continued. When Charles II died without heirs, he named Philip of Anjou, a Bourbon prince, as his successor. This alignment of European powers on two sides gave rise to the War of the Spanish Succession.