Spanish Civil War: A Nation Divided (1936-1939)

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The Spanish Civil War, fought from July 17, 1936, to April 1, 1939, stands as the most significant and tragic event in 20th-century Spain. The war exposed deep-seated problems within Spanish society, particularly the challenges of political and social modernization. This conflict, preceding World War II, pitted liberalism and socialism against anti-democratic authoritarianism. Its immediate consequence was the establishment of a dictatorship that endured for forty years.

Prelude to War

The pre-war situation was highly unstable, with right-wing parties and the Popular Front engaging in street violence and accusing the government of failing to maintain public order. On July 12, 1936, Falangist gunmen assassinated the leftist deputy Castillo, who had days earlier shot a young traditionalist. The following day, right-wing deputy Calvo Sotelo was murdered in retaliation. These murders served as the catalyst for the uprising of the rebels.

The Uprising

On July 17, the so-called "National Uprising" began in Melilla and Tetouan. Juan Yagüe managed the insurrection in Spanish Morocco from Ceuta and declared a state of war. Gonzalo Queipo de Llano rose up in Seville, and General Emilio Mola did the same in Pamplona. The exiled General Franco flew to Tetouan and assumed leadership of the African army.

Following the rebellion, Spain was divided. Galicia, Leon, Old Castile, Northern Extremadura, Navarra, Alava, Western Aragon, Seville, the Balearic and Canary Islands, and the protectorate of Morocco fell under the control of the coup leaders. However, the rebellion failed to succeed in major cities like Madrid, Bilbao, Barcelona, and Valencia. The initial coup transformed into a long and bloody struggle: the Civil War.

The War of Columns

The first stage of the war was characterized by the "war of columns," in which the armed population organized itself into military columns. The rebels' primary objective was Madrid. Franco landed in Andalusia with 14,000 men, and this army advanced in columns under Colonel Yagüe through Extremadura towards Madrid. However, they were diverted to liberate the Alcázar of Toledo, defended by Colonel Moscardó. Republican generals José Miaja and Vicente Rojo, aided by the first International Brigades, managed to halt General Varela's columns at the gates of Madrid.

Foreign Intervention

Foreign intervention played a crucial role in the war, giving it an international dimension. The Republic received assistance from the USSR under dictator Stalin, who provided food and weapons, paid for with funds from the Bank of Spain, and organized International Brigades comprising 40,000 volunteers. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas also supported the Republic militarily and diplomatically.

The rebel Nationalist side received aid from Germany under Hitler, who sent his air force, the Condor Legion, and from Italy under Mussolini, who provided a large contingent, the "Corpo di Truppe Volontarie." Franco also benefited from the collaboration of Portugal and favorable press coverage from the papacy.

International Repercussions

The intervention in the Spanish conflict soon raised fears of a wider international war. The countries most affected, France and Great Britain, established the Non-Intervention Committee in September 1936.

The Spanish Civil War also served as a testing ground for World War II. Modern aviation became a key weapon, cavalry was replaced by tanks, and new concepts emerged, such as total war (bombing of entire cities) and psychological warfare (radio, newspapers, and trench literature).

Key Aspects of the War:

• Ideological Conflict: Liberalism and socialism vs. anti-democratic authoritarianism.
• Triggering Events: Assassinations of Castillo and Calvo Sotelo.
• Key Figures: Franco, Yagüe, Mola, Miaja, Rojo, Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Cárdenas.
• Foreign Intervention: USSR, Mexico, Germany, Italy, Portugal.
• Military Innovations: Prominence of aviation, tanks, total war, and psychological warfare.