Spanish-American War of 1898: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences

Spanish Colonial Conflicts

In the late nineteenth century, Spain retained colonial territories, including Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines, and various Pacific Islands.

The Cuban Struggle for Independence

The first Cuban war concluded with the Zanjón Peace (1878), a mere truce. Creole aspirations persisted, alongside US interests in controlling the island's exports. Spain failed to meet agreed conditions such as equal political rights, parliamentary representation, participation in island governance, free trade, and the abolition of slavery.

Two main political parties emerged: the Autonomist Party, seeking greater autonomy, and the Constitutional Union, advocating for Spanish allegiance.

In 1893, due to administrative ineffectiveness, José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party, advocating for independence with US support. A general uprising began in 1895 with the Grito de Baire.

Spanish Response and Escalation

Spain's initial response, led by Martínez Campos, aimed for conciliation but failed. General Valeriano Weyler's subsequent crackdown, coupled with tropical diseases, inflicted heavy casualties on both sides. After the death of Cánovas, General Blanco attempted conciliation, but the guerrillas remained steadfast in their demand for independence.

The Spanish-American War

The 1898 disaster began with the bombing of the USS Maine in Havana harbor. The US blamed Spain, offering $300 million for the island or threatening war. Spain disputed responsibility and considered the offer a humiliation. The ensuing Spanish-American War extended to the Philippines, where José Rizal led an uprising, also supported by the US.

US Victory and Treaty of Paris

US military superiority led to the Treaty of Paris (1898). Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines (becoming US protectorates) and sold its Pacific Islands to Germany. Spain lost its status as a colonial empire.

Consequences of the 1898 Disaster

• Evidence of the Restoration's crisis, necessitating new political measures.
• Loss of prestige and markets for Spanish manufactures, especially textiles.
• Consolidation of Spain's internal trade to stabilize public finances.
• Exposure of the army's inability and the issue of Quintas (conscription system).

Moral and Ideological Crisis

Intellectuals criticized the Restoration, demanding systemic regeneration. The Institución Libre de Enseñanza (est. 1879), led by Joaquín Costa, identified education as a solution to Spain's backwardness. The Generation of '98, including Pío Baroja, Azorín, Unamuno, and Machado, offered critical and pessimistic analyses, seeking moral, social, and cultural renewal.