Spain's Tumultuous Early 20th Century: From Regeneration to Dictatorship

The Reign of Alfonso XIII: A Nation in Crisis

The Crisis of the Spanish Food System (1923) and the Rise of Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship (1923)

The year 1923 marked a turning point in Spain's history, characterized by a crisis in the food system and the subsequent establishment of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship. These events were preceded by the Regenerationism movement, a surge of intellectual thought denouncing the dire state of the nation. Between 1902 and 1923, Spain experienced a period of political instability, with King Alfonso XIII entangled in governmental changes and aligning himself with conservative factions within the army.

Key Problems in Spanish Political Life

• Escalation of social unrest due to increased mobilization of the working class.
• Heightened criticism of the Church's growing influence.
• Military issues stemming from the Crisis of '98 and increasing militarism.
• Conflicts in Morocco, fueled by Spain's ambition to establish a new colonial system.
• The rising force of nationalism.

Regeneration and Policy Reform

At the outset of Alfonso XIII's reign, attempts were made at Regenerationist reforms by various political forces. The loss of Spain's last colonies exposed the nation's poverty and backwardness compared to other European countries.

Prime Minister Silvela confronted a significant problem in Catalonia, leading the government to suspend constitutional guarantees and enact the Law of Jurisdictions.

In 1907, King Alfonso XIII appointed Antonio Maura as Prime Minister. Maura initiated a comprehensive reform program involving substantial public investment. This program included support for industry, naval reconstruction, agricultural improvements, the establishment of Sunday rest, regulation of working hours for women and children, the creation of the National Institute for Forecasting, and the laying of the groundwork for social security.

The Tragic Week (1909)

The Tragic Week of 1909 was a pivotal moment of crisis linked to the war in Morocco. Maura's order to mobilize reservists triggered a general strike against the deployment of troops, which was met with harsh repression. Ferrer y Guardia was accused of being the main instigator of the Tragic Week. Despite a campaign against his execution, he was put to death. The fallout from these events forced Alfonso XIII to replace Maura with Canalejas.

Canalejas' reform agenda focused on promoting the state's role in the economy, improving the conditions of the working class, enacting the Law of Associations, abolishing the quintos (a system of conscription), establishing compulsory military service, separating church and state, and controlling religious orders. His assassination by an anarchist in 1912 brought the regenerationist drive to a halt.

World War I and the Crisis of 1917

At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Spanish public opinion was divided between supporters of the Allies and those sympathetic to Germany. The conservative government of Eduardo Dato chose to remain neutral, allowing Spain to trade with both sides by supplying goods to their armies. While industries operated at full capacity and employers' profits soared, workers faced rising commodity prices and a decline in purchasing power.

Three Key Factors Contributing to the Crisis of 1917

• Military Crisis: Disgruntled officers formed the Juntas de Defensa in 1916. Despite initial attempts to dissolve these juntas, the government ultimately yielded in 1917.
• Political Crisis: The Cortes (Spanish Parliament) held closed sessions.
• Social Crisis: The UGT (General Union of Workers) and CNT (National Confederation of Labor) organized a general strike, which was suppressed by the military.

The Moroccan Problem and the Annual Disaster

Between 1918 and 1923, Spain experienced thirteen major governmental crises and thirty partial crises. The post-war period brought an economic downturn, with exports plummeting and companies forced to reduce production and workforce. This led to heightened social conflict during the Trienio Bolchevista (1918-1921). In 1921, the government passed the Ley de Fugas, legalizing the summary execution of prisoners by security forces. Anarchists retaliated by assassinating Prime Minister Dato.

In 1900, France initiated its conquest of Morocco, facing opposition from Germany. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 granted Spain control over northern Morocco. However, the Riffians, who rejected this agreement, triggered the Barranco del Lobo incident. Maura's subsequent mobilization of reservists led to the Tragic Week. In 1921, Spain suffered a significant defeat at Annual. Public outcry demanded accountability. Maura commissioned a report from Colonel Picasso to identify those responsible, which implicated General Berenguer, other military leaders, and even King Alfonso XIII. To deflect blame, a coup d'état was launched on September 13, 1923, ushering in the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, with the King's consent.