Spain's Transformation: 15th Century Shifts

15th Century Europe: A Period of Profound Change

The 15th century marked a pivotal era in European history. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, signaling the end of the Byzantine Empire. Concurrently, new technical advancements in navigation and shipbuilding empowered Europeans to embark on ambitious voyages, leading to the exploration of the African coast and, significantly, the arrival in America. It was the Crown of Castile that spearheaded the discovery of the Americas, initiating a new age of global interaction.

Domestically, this period saw a shift in power dynamics. Nobles experienced a slight reduction in their influence, as power began to consolidate in favor of the monarch and the rising bourgeoisie. On the Iberian Peninsula, this trend was particularly evident as the Catholic Monarchs unified most of the peninsula's territories, laying the groundwork for modern Spain.

The Catholic Monarchs: Unifying Spain

The union of Ferdinand II of Aragon (future King of Aragon) and Isabella I of Castile (future Queen of Castile) as the Catholic Monarchs was a defining moment. While their marriage did not immediately create a single, unified kingdom, it forged a powerful new dynasty. The Agreement of Segovia (1475) was crucial; it allowed the Catholic Monarchs to rule both crowns, ensuring that each territory maintained its distinct borders, laws, and even currency.

Key Developments of the 15th Century

The 15th century witnessed significant societal and economic transformations:

• Reduced Epidemics: Great epidemics, such as the Black Death, diminished, leading to a substantial population growth.
• Agricultural Boom: Increased agricultural production supported the growing population.
• Trade and Industry Expansion: The development of trade and manufacturing industries led to some members of the bourgeoisie becoming very wealthy.
• Rise of Absolute Monarchy: Monarchs increasingly concentrated political power, diminishing the influence of the nobility. This system became known as absolute monarchy.

Territorial Acquisitions and Unification

The Catholic Monarchs and their successors actively pursued territorial expansion and unification:

• The Emirate of Granada (1482-1492) was conquered, completing the Reconquista.
• The Kingdom of Navarre (an ally of France) was incorporated in 1515.
• Portugal was inherited by Philip II in 1581, though this union was temporary.
• The Kingdom of Naples was acquired in 1505.
• The Canary Islands were fully incorporated by 1496.
• Various North African strongholds like Melilla (1497), Oran (1509), and Bougie (1509) were secured.

Governance and Society Across the Crowns

Despite the dynastic union, governance differed significantly between Castile and Aragon.

Governance in Castile

In Castile, Queen Isabella centralized power. She actively worked to reduce the influence of the nobility, strengthening the royal authority.

Governance in Aragon

In the Crown of Aragon, King Ferdinand largely respected the existing confederation and its traditional institutions. These included the Corts (parliaments), the Generalitat (Catalan government), and the Consell de Cent de Barcelona (city council). The promulgation of the "Constitució de l'Observança" in 1481 was a landmark event, mandating that all authorities, including the monarch, had to be loyal to Catalan laws (a principle that extended to other territories within the Crown of Aragon as well).

Economic and Social Structures

The economic and social landscape also varied:

• In northern Castile, the majority of peasants owned small or medium-sized plots of land.
• Conversely, in Andalusia, most people did not own land; the vast majority of land was concentrated in the hands of the nobility and the clergy.

Although the political power of the nobility and clergy was somewhat curtailed, their economic power often increased, largely due to the institution of the majorat (entailment), which ensured the preservation of large estates within families. New laws were also enacted to foster the development of trade, navigation, and manufacturing. This led to the emergence of a strong bourgeoisie class in cities like Valencia and Barcelona. However, despite these changes, the clergy and nobles continued to be the primary landowners. The system of majorats also existed in Catalonia.