Spain's Restoration Era: Politics, Society, and Nationalisms

The Cánovas Restoration System

The Spanish Restoration era saw the consolidation of a conservative party system under Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. This period was marked by a political agreement between Cánovas and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, known as the Pact of El Pardo, which ensured a peaceful alternation of power between the Conservative Party (1875-1881) and the Liberal Party (1881-1890). This system, however, was plagued by electoral corruption, often referred to as caciquismo. Power was centralized in Madrid, controlled by an oligarchy, while provincial governors and local chiefs manipulated elections, leading to widespread rigging.

Reign of Alfonso XII and Key Events

The reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885) was crucial for the consolidation of civil power and ecclesiastical stability, leading to significant political shifts and constitutional arrangements. Key events during this period included:

• The end of the Third Carlist War, effectively diminishing the influence of Charles VII and the Carlist movement.
• Financing of the Ten Years' War in Cuba, which concluded with the Peace of Zanjón, negotiated by General Arsenio Martínez Campos. This was followed by the brief Guerra Chiquita.
• The emergence of the labor movement, culminating in the founding of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in 1879.

Regionalism and Nationalisms in Spain

The Restoration period also witnessed the rise of distinct regionalist and nationalist movements across Spain:

Catalan Nationalism

Originating in the 1830s with Romanticism, Catalan nationalism developed through the Renaixença (Catalan cultural revival). Key milestones included the revival of the Jocs Florals (Flower Games) in 1859. Early Catalanism, championed by figures like Valentí Almirall, focused on defending distinct cultural hallmarks. Religious figures like Josep Torras i Bages linked Catalan tradition to Carlism. By 1901, Enric Prat de la Riba represented the industrial bourgeoisie and Catholic conservatives, leading to the formation of the Lliga Regionalista (Catalan League), supported by the upper middle classes.

Basque Nationalism

Basque nationalism initially had a strong rural base and lacked a significant literary tradition. Its distinct language, Euskera, was a central element. Rapid industrialization in Vizcaya led to a significant influx of immigrants. The abolition of the fueros (traditional rights) by Cánovas in 1876, following the last Carlist War, fueled resentment. Basque society was largely rural, Catholic, and anti-Spanish. Sabino Arana founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), rooted in Carlism, conservative values, agricultural interests, and the traditional bourgeoisie of Bilbao. By the 20th century, moderate positions gained influence, extending the movement's reach.

Galician Regionalism

Galician regionalism saw an aborted revolutionary autonomy uprising in 1846. Its slower economic development contributed to less political attachment compared to other regions. The cultural revival, known as O Rexurdimento, was significant. Manuel Murguía (husband of Rosalía de Castro) led Galician regionalist action, though it had limited political implantation.

Causes and Origins of the Restoration

The Spanish Restoration was a direct response to the instability of the previous administration and the failure of the First Republic. The conservative bourgeoisie, seeking order and stability, favored a return to monarchy. Isabel II had abdicated in favor of her son, Alfonso XII, in 1870, despite other contenders like the Carlist pretender, Charles VII.

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, leader of the Royalist Party, strategically sought the return of the Bourbons through legal, civilian means (elections). He drafted the Sandhurst Manifesto, signed by Prince Alfonso, outlining the principles of the future monarchy. However, the Restoration was ultimately precipitated by General Arsenio Martínez Campos's pronunciamiento, which recognized Alfonso XII as king.

The Cánovas Political System

The Restoration established a more stable and solid political system, often compared to the English model of bipartisanship. It was based on doctrinal liberalism and recognized an "internal constitution" of Spain, reflecting the historical nature of its people. Sovereignty was shared between the Monarchy and the Cortes (Parliament).

The system was characterized by two main parties:

• The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas del Castillo, heirs to the Moderates and Unionists.
• The Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and Moret, heirs to the Radicals and Constitutionalists.

Despite this apparent stability, Carlist and Republican opposition persisted, with military pronunciamientos occurring until 1886.

Key Features of the 1876 Constitution

The 1876 Constitution was a moderate document, largely based on the 1845 Constitution. Its key features included:

• Flexibility: Designed to be adaptable, allowing for the alternating governments of the two main parties.
• Joint Sovereignty: Power was shared between the King and the Cortes.
• Bicameral Cortes: Comprised two chambers:
  • Congress: Elected by popular vote (though universal male suffrage was not initially established).
  • Senate: Senators appointed by the King, including nobles, clergy, and magnates.
• Strong Monarchy: The King acted as an arbitrator, standing above the parties. The monarch appointed ministers, dissolved the Cortes, and sanctioned laws. Successes were attributed to the King, while failures were often blamed on the parties.
• Suffrage: Universal male suffrage was eventually established in 1890.
• Religious Policy: Catholicism was the official state religion, but a degree of religious tolerance was permitted.
• Bill of Rights: A Bill of Rights was included, but its application was more limited compared to the 1869 Constitution, and the government retained the power to suspend certain rights.