Spain's Early 20th Century: Dictatorship and Agrarian Unrest

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship began with a coup d'état in 1923, following Mussolini's accession to power in Italy. While influenced by the political climate, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship was not fascist; it emerged from the Regenerationist movement, aiming to combat the perceived ills of the Restoration era.

Support and Opposition

Initially, Primo de Rivera was well received by many segments of society. However, opposition soon emerged among students and intellectuals. Primo de Rivera also faced significant resistance from peripheral nationalisms (such as Catalan and Basque nationalism) and became increasingly repressive against their manifestations. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) and Communists were seen as a major threat to the regime.

The PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) and UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores) initially collaborated with Rivera's government until 1928, when they moved into opposition.

Government Structure and Policies

Primo de Rivera presided over two distinct governments:

• Military Directory (1923-1925): Focused on restoring order and addressing immediate crises.
• Civil Directory (1925-1930): Aimed at institutionalizing the regime.

In 1924, the Patriotic Union party was founded as the regime's national political vehicle. In 1925, the government successfully addressed the long-standing issue of the Moroccan War, leading to a period of reduced social unrest.

During the Civil Directory, the dictatorship focused on building its institutional framework, including the creation of a National Consultative Assembly (which was appointed, not democratically elected). Significant infrastructure development took place, including:

• Construction of new roads.
• Upgrading of the national rail network.
• Building of dams and irrigation canals.
• Establishment of new educational institutes.

Fall of Primo de Rivera

The regime's decline was marked by growing opposition and increasing confrontation with the military. A significant conspiracy against the military dictatorship took place in 1926. The onset of the 1929 economic crisis further weakened the regime's foundations. In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile in Paris, where he died shortly after.

Following Primo de Rivera's resignation, General Dámaso Berenguer formed a new government, promising a return to constitutional normality. During this period, the CNT was reconstructed, and both the UGT and PSOE openly opposed the monarchy. Nationalists and peripheral nationalisms signed the Pact of San Sebastián in August 1930, signaling a united front against the monarchy and for the establishment of a republic.

The Agrarian Sector and Its Problems (1898-1931)

Between 1898 and 1931, Spain remained a predominantly agricultural country, facing two primary and interconnected problems: unfair land distribution and significant social tensions in rural areas.

Transformations and Land Ownership

In the early 20th century, transformations began that slowly led towards a market economy in agriculture. Agricultural production and cultivated area increased due to rising demand, reduced fallow periods, mechanization, and the use of fertilizers.

However, a stark land ownership structure persisted:

• Large estates (latifundia): Dominated western Andalusia, Extremadura, and Castilla-La Mancha.
• Small farms (minifundia): Characterized Galicia and northern areas.
• Medium-sized farms: Found in the rest of the peninsula.

Rural Social Tensions

In the countryside, alongside landowners, there were powerful caciques (local bosses) who often exploited landless tenants or laborers. The miserable living conditions of these rural workers led to widespread social unrest and frequent riots.

Andalusian peasants, in particular, vehemently demanded land reform and fairer property distribution. They organized into unions from the late 19th century onwards, demanding better pay and working conditions through strikes, roadblocks, and other forms of protest. The impact of the 1917 Soviet Revolution fueled more violent protests, particularly during the "Trienio Bolchevique" (1917-1920), a period of intense rural agitation.