Spain's Last Colonies: Cuba, PR, Philippines

Decline of the Spanish Empire

During the reign of Fernando VII, the Spanish Empire lost most of its mainland American colonies. Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands remained under Spanish sovereignty.

Colonial Administration Challenges

Colonial problems severely strained the administration. Rulers had to contend with Cuba's long war (1868-1878).

Cuba's Struggle for Independence

Cuba was closely linked to the U.S. economy and desired similar economic and democratic development. The U.S. even expressed interest in buying the island.

Parallel rebellions occurred in Cuba. The last, led by Céspedes, began with the "Cry of Yara," a village where the Ten Years' War started, lasting until 1878.

Furthermore, problems within the Spanish government allowed a degree of independence for rebels, which Máximo Gómez leveraged into a struggle for independence.

Operations took place in the east, moving toward the west, where the wealthiest Spanish landowners resided. The hardest phase of the conflict occurred during the Restoration period.

Slavery and Social Issues

Behind the conflict lay the social issue of the abolition of slavery. While Puerto Rico successfully adopted a free labor system, Cuba could not dispense with slave labor. This was because slave traders had become wealthy, and enslaved people represented a large percentage of the colony's labor base. The slave system survived until 1886.

These elements, combined with U.S. government interference, forged Cuban nationalism.

The Peace of Zanjón (1878)

The conflict ended after the signing of the Peace of Zanjón. This led to some recognized improvements, such as amnesty, freedom for settlers and Asian laborers, but it did not alter Cuba's status as a Spanish province.

Renewed Conflict and Spanish Policy

Despite the peace, the problem re-emerged two years later and definitively in 1895. In this context, the Spanish government's policy regarding independence demands was insufficient. Attempts were made to reform the Philippine government and test decentralization in Cuba, but these were not approved.

Puerto Rico's Situation

Puerto Rico had achieved autonomy, resulting in two main currents: one Spanish loyalist and one West Indian nationalist. This was less problematic for Spain as it controlled these movements. Puerto Rico also had a healthy economy and had abolished slavery earlier.

Spanish Reforms and Political Crisis

In Cuba, reforms had significant implications in Spain, such as the abolition of slavery in 1886. Maura, a liberal, proposed administrative reforms and an extension of the census, but these were rejected. This led to his resignation and a crisis within the Liberal Party.

Given the refusal of reforms, the Cuban Revolutionary Party was created, led by José Martí, in 1892.

By 1895, three main currents were consolidated in Cuba: Spanish loyalists, autonomists, and independentists.

The Philippine Islands

In the Philippine Islands, there was a limited Spanish presence. Even so, Spain faced resistance from farmers, clergy, nationalists, and landowners. Mestizos and natives formed a liberation movement, notably José Rizal, who formed the Liga Filipina.

A nationalist uprising occurred in 1895, contributing to the context of the Cuban War and the later Spanish-American War in 1898.

The Cuban War of Independence (1895-1898)

The Cuban War developed in four stages:

1. Stage 1: 1895

   The uprising began in 1895, marked by the death of independence leader José Martí.

2. Stage 2: 1895-1896

   Rebel troops advanced further. It began with the "Cry of Baire" in the eastern part of the island. Key leaders included Antonio Maceo and Máximo Gómez.

3. Stage 3: 1896-1897

   Martínez Campos was replaced by Weyler due to failure. Weyler aimed to end the insurrection by force. He implemented a "reconcentration" policy, gathering peasants in villages isolated from rebels. However, the difficulty of providing supplies led to high mortality among civilians and soldiers and destruction of infrastructure, severely impacting the Cuban economy.

4. Stage 4: 1897-1898

   Weyler was relieved. Cuba was granted autonomy, universal suffrage, equal rights, and tariff autonomy. However, these reforms came too late, as independence was achieved with U.S. support in 1898.