Spain: Bourbon Restoration, Crisis, and the Rise of the Republic

The Bourbon Restoration

The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, was the result of a political process. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, Conservative Party leader, orchestrated Isabella's abdication and Alfonso's acceptance of the throne after promising a constitutional government.

The Restored Political System

The political system of the Restoration rested on two pillars: the Constitution of 1876 and the turnismo, or alternation in power, of two major political parties. The Conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, were heirs to the Moderates, while the Liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, descended from the Progressives.

The Constitution of 1876 was moderate yet flexible, allowing parties to govern without amending it. It established a comprehensive declaration of rights, though these could be restricted depending on the ruling party.

The turnismo involved the peaceful alternation of parties. When a government faltered, the King appointed the head of the opposition to form a new government. This new leader then rigged elections to ensure victory.

Problems of the Restoration

The Restoration faced numerous challenges:

• Opposition to the turnismo from Carlists, Republicans, and Democrats.
• Rising regionalism challenging the central government's policies. Catalans demanded recognition of Catalan as an official language, Catalan courts and political parties, and autonomy for Catalonia.
• Growth of the labor movement, marked by the spread of socialism (PSOE and UGT) and anarchism (FTRE).
• The Disaster of 1898, which saw the loss of Spain's last colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

Crisis of the Liberal State: The Reign of Alfonso XIII

Alfonso XIII was declared of age in 1902.

Maintaining the Party Shift

Between 1902 and 1917, under new leadership (Antonio Maura for the Conservatives and José Canalejas for the Liberals), both parties pursued regeneracionista policies.

The Tragic Week of 1909 in Barcelona, sparked by mobilization of reservists for the Moroccan War and harsh government repression, fractured the turnismo pact and led to Maura's resignation.

Decomposition of the Restoration System (1917-1923)

A series of crises with military, social, and political dimensions shattered the Restoration system.

• Military Crisis: Military demands for higher pay and merit-based promotions.
• Political Crisis: Catalan demands for a new constitution and a decentralized, autonomous state.
• Social Crisis: Calls for a general strike.

Between 1919 and 1923, the situation worsened. Short-lived governments struggled to maintain control amid social unrest and the ongoing disaster of the Moroccan War. In 1923, General Primo de Rivera launched a coup, ending the Restoration and establishing a dictatorship.

Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

Initially, a military directorate suspended the Constitution, dissolved parliament, banned political parties, suppressed the labor movement and nationalism, and achieved victory in Morocco after the Alhucemas landing.

Later, Primo de Rivera formed a civilian directorate, promoting irrigation, industry, road construction, and railway improvements.

Interim Government and the Constitution of 1931

Following Alfonso XIII's exile on April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government of Socialists and Republicans called elections for a constituent assembly, which returned a leftist majority.

The Constitution of 1931 established a comprehensive bill of rights, popular sovereignty, division of powers, universal suffrage, regional autonomy, and separation of church and state.

Reforms under Manuel Azaña

A coalition government led by Manuel Azaña implemented reforms to address Spain's problems and democratize public life.

• State Reform: Addressed centralism by granting Catalonia a Statute of Autonomy, with its own parliament and government (the Generalitat).
• Social Reform: Improved working conditions with a 40-hour workweek, higher salaries, and insurance.
• Land Reform: Aimed for fairer land distribution through expropriation of large, poorly exploited estates and resettlement of peasants.

Conservative Governments and the Popular Front

After elections, a Radical government led by Alejandro Lerroux, supported by right-wing parties led by José María Gil-Robles, came to power.

In October 1934, an uprising in Asturias and Barcelona intensified political polarization. New elections were called.

The Coup and the Civil War

The military uprising began in Melilla, Ceuta, and Tetuán on July 17, 1936, spreading across Spain. It succeeded in rural areas but failed in industrialized zones.

Military Developments

The rebels aimed to seize Madrid, but resistance and defeats at Jarama and Guadalajara forced a change of plans. The war shifted to the Cantabrian region, giving the rebels control of industrial areas, and then to the Mediterranean. The Republicans launched the Ebro offensive, but ultimately the rebels won and took Catalonia.

Political Actions During the War

In the Republican zone, a social revolution led to collectivization, anti-clericalism, and the Basque Statute of Autonomy. Francisco Largo Caballero led the government until 1937, followed by Juan Negrín.

In Nationalist territory, Republican reforms were reversed. Franco consolidated power and unified political forces.

Population, Migration, and Economic Transformations

Population growth accelerated in the early 20th century. The Civil War caused a slight decline in births but mortality decreased. Emigration, mainly to Latin America, and internal rural exodus intensified.

Agriculture remained the primary occupation. Industry adopted mass production methods and diversified. Infrastructure development included roads, telegraphs, telephones, and radio. Finance and banking also expanded.

Spanish Society

The upper class (landowners, industrialists) enjoyed a wealthy lifestyle. The middle class (farmers, officials) grew but remained small. The lower class (smallholders, laborers) faced economic hardship.