Spain's American Empire: Discovery, Conquest, and Governance

The Discovery of America and Its Context

The discovery of America was not a casual or adventurous account. It was preceded by several European studies, treaties, and ascertainments.

The factors that prompted the discovery of America were:

• Economic: The search for new routes for trade, especially to the East.
• Ideological/Religious: New opportunities to evangelize new territories.
• Scientific/Technical: Advances in navigation, such as the compass, the caravel, and improvements in cartography.

The only opportunity left to Castile to reach India was to sail west, as proposed by Columbus. He accidentally discovered a New World, which fundamentally changed the global worldview held until then.

The Capitulations of Santa Fe

The theory of colonization must be explained. The Capitulaciones de Santa Fe granted Columbus the titles of Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor of the discovered lands, along with a tenth of the riches obtained.

On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the Antilles, specifically Guanahani Island (which he renamed San Salvador).

The voyages to America were of two types: 4 major voyages realized by Columbus, and minor voyages realized by others (Amerigo Vespucci, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, etc.).

Another significant expedition of that time was that of Nuñez de Balboa, who crossed the Isthmus of Panama, becoming the first European to see the Pacific Ocean.

Conquest and Colonization of the Americas

The conquest, following the precedent set by the Canary Islands, highlights the social condition of the conquistadors: men of humble origins and limited means who sought fortune. The important conquests of the Aztec and Inca empires are considered among the most significant military exploits in history.

Major Conquests

• Mexico (Aztecs): Hernán Cortés conquered the territory inhabited by the Aztecs using superior weaponry, military strategy, and diplomatic ingenuity.
• Peru (Incas): Peru was conquered by Francisco Pizarro. The Incas were already embroiled in a civil war, which Pizarro exploited. Manco Inca was initially installed as a puppet ruler but later led a major revolt. This period was followed by a civil war between Pizarro and Almagro, resulting in the death of both leaders.

Aspects of Colonization

Colonization was characterized by universalism, high costs, and the spread of Catholicism. The process was heavily influenced by the Church. Key social outcomes included the status of the indigenous population (often referred to as "free Indians" under Spanish law, though subject to labor systems), Mestizaje (racial mixing), and the founding of new cities.

Government and Administration of the Spanish Americas

The government and administration of the Americas incorporated these lands directly into the Crown of Castile. The indigenous population were considered vassals of the King.

The Laws of the Indies

The Leyes de Indias (Indian Laws) were a set of generous provisions made applicable in these territories.

Governing Bodies (Metropolitan)

The House of Trade (Casa de Contratación)

Managed trade issues, immigration, and judicial matters related to navigation (Nautos). Its headquarters were in Seville.

The Supreme Council of the Indies (Consejo Supremo de Indias)

This agency or ministry assisted the sovereign, prepared legislation, oversaw general management, appointed high officials, and served as the highest court of appeal.

Territorial Organization (Colonial)

The territory was divided into:

• Viceroyalties
• Governorates
• Corregimientos
• Audiencias (High Courts)
• Cabildos (Town Meetings/Councils)

Indigenous Labor Systems

The indigenous population was subject to various forms of labor organization, including the Mita (forced labor draft, especially for mining), the Encomienda (a grant of indigenous labor and tribute), and the Reducciones (settlements designed to concentrate indigenous populations).

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