Spain's 19th Century Cultural Evolution

Cultural Changes During the Bourgeois-Liberal Revolution

• Secularization of Culture: Emphasis on national, scientific, and technical aspects.
• Creation of National Consciousness: Language and common culture were enhanced, leading to citizens identifying with the nation-state.
• Spread of Literacy: Facilitated by the creation of a national educational system.
• Bourgeois Patronage: Industries influenced art and aesthetics to align with bourgeois tastes.
• State Education System: Implemented separately from church control.

Transformations in the Educational World

• 1857 Public Education Act (Moyano Law): A landmark legislative act.
• Dual System:
  • State Education: Faced budgetary constraints; primary education often managed by municipalities, secondary by provincial councils (diputaciones).
  • Private Education: Predominantly religious institutions.
• Literacy Rates:
  • Mid-1800s: A significant portion of the population could not read or write.
  • 1900: Illiteracy reduced to 36%.
• Primary School Attendance: Only 1.6% of the population attended primary school, primarily those with economic resources, almost exclusively men.
• Secondary Education: Institutes were established in each provincial capital. By 1887, these institutions became state-dependent.
• Restoration Era: An increase in private schools, often run by associations or religious orders. By 1900, only one-third of high school students attended these schools.

University Studies

• Enrollment: More than half of high school graduates pursued university education.
• System: A uniform, centralized university system was established. The Central University of Madrid granted all bachelor's and master's degrees, with other universities like Barcelona, Oviedo, and Salamanca serving as affiliates.
• Lack of Academic Freedom:
  • Notable expulsions included Krausists, Castelar, and Salmerón.
  • Resistance to Darwinism and Positivism.
  • Professors were often required to swear allegiance to monarchical and Catholic principles.
• Free Institution of Teaching (ILE): A significant private, secular educational initiative founded by Francisco Giner de los Ríos.
• 1885 Approval: Freedom of ideological tolerance in university chairs (cátedras) was approved.

The Press and Cultural Dissemination

• Newspapers: The most significant medium of the 19th century in Spain.
• Trienio Liberal (1820-1823): Freedom of the press led to the emergence of numerous newspapers and discussion circles.
• Absolutist Decade (1823-1833): A period of repression for the press.
• 1837: Press freedom was re-established.
• New Printing Techniques: Enhanced the political influence of the press, notably through figures like Mariano José de Larra.
• The Restoration (1874-1923): Considered the golden era of journalism, marked by:
  • Increased independence from political parties.
  • Improvements in photography and printing technology.
• Cultural Spread: Also occurred through academic institutions and museums (e.g., Prado Museum, National Archaeological Museum).
• Private Institutions: Key examples include the Ateneo de Madrid and various literary and artistic circles.

Artistic Movements

Romanticism

• Poetry: Often exalted and emotional.
• Novel: Focused on customs (costumbrismo) and historical themes.
• Painting: Characterized by portraits of the bourgeoisie.

Realism

• Fiction: Emphasized realistic portrayals of life.
• Theater: Tended to be more conservative.
• Architecture: Ecclesiastical styles (e.g., Gothic Revival, Neo-Mudéjar) were prominent.
• Painting: Focused on realistic depictions.
• Zarzuela: Reached its peak popularity.