Spain's 1812 Constitution: Liberal Reforms and Resistance

The Constitution of 1812: Spain's First Liberal Charter

The Constitution of 1812, adopted on March 19, 1812, and popularly known as "La Pepa," was the first liberal constitution in Spain. It stands as a foundational text in the history of liberalism. Liberal members Agustín Argüelles, Diego Pérez, and Muñoz Castro were the three leading figures in its preparation.

Key Features of the 1812 Constitution

• National Sovereignty: Power resides in the nation, not the monarch.
• Separation of Powers:
  • Legislative Power: Cortes (parliamentary chamber).
  • Judiciary Power: Courts.
  • Executive Power: The King, but with significant limitations:
    • Royal orders required validation by the signature of the relevant minister.
    • The King could not dissolve the Cortes.
    • A suspensive veto could be applied for two years, after which the Cortes' decision became law.
    • Ministers were appointed by the King but required confirmation by the Cortes (double confidence).
• New Right of Representation: The nation exercises its sovereignty through its representatives in the Cortes.
• Complex Electoral Procedure: Implemented indirect universal male suffrage in four stages. The right to vote was granted to men over 25 years, who would elect delegates, who in turn elected members of the Cortes.
• Equality Before the Law: This abolished the privileges of the estates system.
• Omission of Territorial Jurisdictions: No specific reference to territorial jurisdictions was included.
• Recognition of Individual Rights: Included rights such as education, freedom of the press, inviolability of the home, personal liberty, and property.
• Catholicism as State Religion: Catholicism was declared the sole religion allowed. This feature, explained by the need to secure the clergy's collaboration in the fight against the French occupation, somewhat clashed with the otherwise advanced spirit of the constitution.

Spanish Resistance Against French Dominion

During the Peninsular War, guerrilla warfare and sieges were crucial methods employed to prevent French dominion over Spain.

Siege Warfare: Urban Resistance

Sieges involved the tenacious resistance of Spanish cities (such as Zaragoza and Gerona) against the French advance. These besieged cities endured relentless bombing, severe food and water shortages, and immense hardship. Their objective was to hold back the invading army, thereby eroding Napoleonic troops and gaining crucial time for the rest of the country to organize its resistance.

Guerrilla Warfare: Popular Resistance

Guerrilla warfare was a spontaneous and popular armed resistance movement against the French invaders. It comprised groups formed by peasants, bourgeois, priests, and people from all walks of life, often led by local figures. Their most effective weapon was their intimate knowledge of the terrain and local resources. They avoided open-field confrontations, instead operating in small groups to harass the French army, destroy installations, and assault supply shipments.