Spain and the 17th Century: The Habsburg Decline in Europe

The 17th Century: Europe's New International Order

The seventeenth century, often called the "Iron Century," saw the advent and consolidation of a new international order in Europe, marked by constant warfare. The cruel Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the related Franco-Spanish War, which ended in 1659, are prime examples of this.

The Peace of Westphalia and a New European Order

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought an end to the Thirty Years' War. This treaty marked the triumph of a "horizontal Europe," based on independent monarchies pursuing a diplomatic and military balance, and the defeat of the idea of a "vertical Europe," in which kingdoms would be subordinate to the Emperor and the Pope. Moreover, the Peace of Westphalia signaled the end of the hegemony of the two branches of the Habsburg dynasty (Madrid and Vienna) in Europe.

The Reign of Philip III: A Peaceful Interlude

The reign of Philip III (1598-1621) was a peaceful one. With Spain and its enemies exhausted after the continuous wars of the previous century, conflicts with France, England, and the rebellious Netherlands were stalled, notably with the signing of the Twelve Years' Truce.

Philip IV and the Resumption of Conflict

With Felipe IV (1621-1665) and his favorite, the Count-Duke of Olivares, Spain once again became involved in major European conflicts. The Spanish monarchy participated in the Thirty Years' War, supporting the Austrian Habsburgs (Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire) and the German Catholic princes. The end of the Twelve Years' Truce (1609-1621) added another front to the conflict.

The war began with Habsburg victories, such as:

• The capture of Breda from the Netherlands.
• Victories at White Mountain and Nördlingen in the Germanic conflict.

However, the tide of the war soon changed, leading to repeated defeats, such as at Rocroi against France, while the British and French attacked Spanish possessions in the Americas. The impotence of the Habsburgs eventually led to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years' War and in which Spain officially recognized the independence of Holland.

The Decline of Spanish Power

The Peace of Westphalia did not mark the end of hostilities for Spain. The war against France continued until 1659. Finally, in the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), Felipe IV accepted significant territorial concessions to the benefit of the French monarchy of Louis XIII, including Roussillon, Cerdanya, and Artois.

Charles II and the War of the Spanish Succession

The weakness of Charles II (1665-1700) made it impossible to stop the French expansionism of Louis XIV, and Spain ceded various European territories in the Treaties of Nijmegen, Aachen, and Ryswick. His death without an heir provoked the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713), an internal Spanish conflict that overlapped with a general European war. The Peace of Utrecht in 1713 marked the end of the Spanish empire in Europe.