Spain's 17th Century Crisis: Rebellions, Decline, and Habsburg Fall

The Crisis of 1640: Rebellions and Reforms

The reforms initiated by the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of Philip IV, sought to strengthen royal authority and achieve greater unity among the various kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. To this end, Olivares increased the tax burden and proposed the Union of Arms, which aimed to maintain a large army to consolidate Spanish hegemony in Europe. This policy mandated that all kingdoms of the monarchy (not just Castile, as previously) contribute men and money to the military effort. This provoked strong opposition, especially in the Crown of Aragon.

In 1640, discontent with the Count-Duke's policies erupted into two open rebellions: those of Catalonia and Portugal.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)

The revolt in Catalonia was primarily caused by the Catalans' exhaustion from the long war with France, which led to forced recruitment and the presence of Spanish troops in Catalonia. These measures caused great inconvenience to the local population. The unrest erupted into the bloody Corpus de Sangre (Blood Corpus) in Barcelona in 1640, during which the viceroy was murdered. The Catalans subsequently requested military aid from the French king, whose sovereignty they recognized, initiating a war with Philip IV's troops that lasted until 1652, culminating in a negotiated peace.

The Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668)

The revolt in Portugal was triggered by the demand for Portuguese troops to fight in Catalonia, but it had deeper causes, including:

• Dissatisfaction with the tax burden.
• Inefficiency in defending Spanish and Portuguese colonial trade.

The monarchy's inability to wage two simultaneous wars led it to prioritize the Catalan rebellion. This allowed the Portuguese to proclaim their independence and appoint the Duke of Braganza as their king. Finally, in 1668, Spain formally recognized Portugal's independence.

The crisis of 1640, which severely threatened to dismember the monarchy, ultimately led to the downfall of the Count-Duke of Olivares.

Decline of the Spanish Empire in the 17th Century

Under Philip II, Spain was the hegemonic power in Europe, although its extensive military efforts had led to the bankruptcy of the royal treasury. Philip III, in contrast, pursued a policy of peace, signing treaties with France and England, and a truce with the Dutch Republic.

The ascent of Philip IV to the throne in 1621 marked the renewed outbreak of war in Flanders and Spain's intervention in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). This widespread conflict affected all of Europe and was highly complex, mixing dynastic reasons (Habsburg supremacy, both Spanish and Austrian branches) with religious ones (Catholic vs. Protestant).

Spain was an ally of the Holy Roman Empire against a broad coalition of German states, the Dutch Republic, Sweden, and eventually, France. In the initial stage of the war, Spanish troops achieved significant victories in Flanders (e.g., the conquest of Breda), Germany, and Italy. However, this required immense economic effort, which generated widespread unrest in Spain (contributing to the crisis of 1640).

However, the intervention of France, allied with Sweden and the Dutch Republic, altered the situation. Spain suffered heavy defeats (e.g., the Battle of Rocroi), which forced it to sign the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Through these treaties, Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and definitively lost Habsburg hegemony in Europe, a role that subsequently passed to the Bourbons.

During the reign of Charles II, although the Spanish Habsburgs had lost their international prestige and Spain was in a serious crisis, several wars with France still occurred, leading to the loss of many territories in Flanders.