Soviet Union's Transformation and the Rise of the European Union

Stalinization: Death Brings Relaxation

A communist named Stalin died. Khrushchev assumed power. The USSR became a paternalistic and bureaucratic system. It assumed a new socialist bloc: condemning Stalinism (considered an aberration and denouncing its crimes), fewer purges, and formulated principles of detente and peaceful coexistence between capitalism and communism. In the satellite countries, there were no reactions in Czechoslovakia and East Germany (strikes and riots), but there were in Poland and Hungary (communist reforms but still loyal to Moscow). Khrushchev's failures in experiments and economic planning were criticized and never bore fruit.

Stagnation

The CPSU deposed Khrushchev. A stage of stagnation began. Technology and production lost ground. The economy and the black market surged, as the authorities believed it could correct errors in state planning. Corruption increased, clans emerged, and nepotistic practices became common. Albania and Romania criticized the USSR and remained loyal to the Stalinist model, while the GDR, Hungary, and Bulgaria remained loyal to Moscow. Poland saw the emergence of a powerful trade union movement (Solidarity), and Czechoslovakia prepared a more liberal and socialist reform program. The Warsaw Pact countries intervened, and their tanks entered Prague.

Perestroika and the Crisis of the System

Lower economic growth and a delay compared to the rest of the world. Gorbachev's leadership reached the USSR. His reformist ideas invoked Lenin and created a program called Perestroika, changes to improve the system. The main points were:

• Openness and transparency of information, without freedom of expression.
• Reform of the centrally planned system, with a catastrophic outcome.
• Creation of the Congress of People's Deputies.

The consequences of Perestroika were dire. It opened the doors to the demise and disintegration of the USSR and the establishment of economic anarchy.

Construction of the European Union

European countries strove for greater economic and political integration. They needed to help each other after the catastrophe of the war. They sought to superimpose mutual economic growth and powerful national economies, creating a single democratic forum and liberalizing customs. Two projects were studied: a federalist and a functionalist one. The British proposed establishing institutions to promote cooperation for discussion and consultation. Integration should be gradual and by sector. The Benelux, the Schuman Declaration, and the Treaty of Paris were created. Customs and economic agreements such as the Treaty of Paris prompted the creation of the EU-6. Britain refused to join the EEC because it only sought free trade. However, the EEC intended to promote three aspects:

• Extension of the community (total European integration).
• The advancement of economic and monetary unity (the ECB and the European Monetary System were created. In 2002, the Euro entered circulation).
• Institution-building promoting political union (direct suffrage elections to form the European Parliament with limited powers).

The Maastricht Treaty was signed to design a Europe based on monetary union, cooperation in foreign and defense policy, and a common development policy, creating cohesion funds. The Lisbon Treaty incorporated the President, established a charter of fundamental rights, and an election system by qualified majority.

Main EU Institutions

• EU Council: Ministers from different areas of the member states, with greater legislative weight.
• European Council: Executive power, state leaders, and the European Commission President.
• European Commission: Represented by members who propose legislative measures.
• European Parliament: Members elected by European citizens.
• Court of Justice: The highest interpreter of Community law, it analyzes the laws of member countries.