Socrates, Sophists, and the Foundations of Athenian Philosophy

The Sophists and Athenian Democracy

Sophists and Socrates represented the concerns and interests of Athenian democracy. In this critical period, freedom and law were important issues, with law central to most discussions. The Sophists considered value management poorly, contrasting it with permanent and universal characteristics. The contrast between law (*nomos*) and nature (*physis*) became the subject of the moment.

The Sophists were foreigners in Athens and educated connoisseurs, providing new ideas. The word "sophist" was initially a synonym for "wise" but later came to mean "skillful in misleading" (Plato viewed the Sophists as destructive).

As foreigners, the Sophists could not intervene directly in the city's policy, but they educated the majority of Athenian politicians. They were primarily educators, emphasizing the important distinction between nomos (law/convention) and physis (nature).

Socrates: A Distinct Philosophical Approach

Socrates is sometimes considered a Sophist, but he did not fit into Sophistry because:

• He was Athenian, while the Sophists were foreigners.
• He did not charge for his services.
• He claimed to know nothing.

The Debate on Teaching Arete (Virtue)

Socrates especially distinguished himself from the Sophists on the question of teaching Arete (virtue or moral excellence). The Sophists thought that Arete could be taught, believing that the virtues of citizenship could be taught and that anyone could acquire the necessary knowledge for political action.

Socrates argued that knowledge is not transmitted; it is something we already possess internally and must be drawn out. He believed knowledge cannot be taught through tradition, nor can it be transmitted by association with good people or because of certain physical qualities.

The Socratic Method

The method that Socrates used in discussions with his disciples had two main parts:

1. Irony: Asking questions to help the disciple find their ignorance of knowledge, enshrined in the Socratic ignorance: "I just do not know anything."

2. Maieutics: Asking questions until the other person arrives to discover the truth within themselves.

Socratic Ethics and Moral Intellectualism

Socrates was interested in the same kind of issues as the Sophists (the act of good or bad, justice), but he combated their relativism. For the Sophists, good and evil were relative; there was nothing inherently good or wrong, as men's opinions made it so.

Aristotle attributes two things to Socrates: the inductive process (parting from specific cases) and the definition of the universal.

The most characteristic ethical doctrine of Socrates is known as Moral Intellectualism: Virtue is knowledge. Knowing what is good ensures one acts well. The more one knows, the better one acts.

These activities seemed very bizarre to citizens. Socrates was reported by Anytus, Meletus, and Lycon for:

• Not honoring the gods the city honored.
• Introducing "strange gods."
• Corrupting the youth.