Sociological Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality

Gender and Sex: Defining the Differences

Sexuality appears to us as an area of highly complex human behavior, which is undergoing fundamental change in contemporary societies. The term "sex" is ambiguous. As commonly used, it indicates the physical and cultural differences that exist between men and women (the male and female) as well as the sexual act itself. It is useful to distinguish between sex in the physiological or biological sense of the term, and gender, a cultural construct (a set of learned behavior patterns).

The Process of Gender Socialization

Some people argue that the behavioral differences between the sexes are genetically determined. However, gender socialization begins as soon as the baby is born. Even parents who believe they treat their children exactly the same tend to react differently to boys and girls. These differences are reinforced by many other cultural influences.

Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Identity

The two main theories on the development of gender identity are those of Sigmund Freud and Nancy Chodorow.

Freud and the Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, the presence or absence of penis symbols—representing masculinity and femininity, respectively—is crucial for identifying the child with the parent and the child with the mother.

Nancy Chodorow and Maternal Identification

Chodorow stresses the importance of the mother. Both girls and boys identify themselves first with the mother, but boys turn away from her to affirm their masculinity, while girls remain bound to her for longer.

Gender as a Daily Practice

Gender is not given; it is something we all need to "practice" in our daily activities. The experience of transsexuals—those who undergo medical treatment to change their physical sexual attributes—shows how difficult it is to move from one gender to another.

Sexual Identity and Cultural Attitudes

In the West, Christianity has been very important in shaping sexual attitudes. In societies where sexual codes are rigid, hypocrisy and double standards usually exist. Sexual identity is a complex issue. Some authors have noted that there are up to ten different sexual identities, including:

• Heterosexuals
• Homosexuals
• Bisexuals
• Transsexuals

It seems that homosexuality exists in all cultures, although the concept of the "homosexual" is a relatively recent idea.

Prostitution in Modern Society

Prostitution is the provision of sexual favors in exchange for payment. In modern societies, there are different types of prostitution, involving men, women, and children. Prostitution is legally permitted or accepted by national or regional governments in some countries, but in most, prostitutes operate outside the law.