Societal Evolution: Key Thinkers on Progress and Conflict

Norbert Elias: The Civilizing Process

Norbert Elias was a 20th-century sociologist who studied how people have gradually changed their behavior over the centuries. His most important work, The Civilizing Process, shows how, since the Middle Ages, human beings have learned to control their impulses (such as violence, sexuality, or aggressiveness) due to social, economic, and political changes.

This process is closely related to the birth of the modern State, which, as Max Weber said, holds the legitimate monopoly on violence within a territory. In other words, only the State has the legal right to use force. Thanks to this, people no longer need to defend themselves individually and can trust that the authorities will resolve conflicts. As a result, we internalize codes of conduct: we learn what is right and wrong, and feel shame or guilt when we act in an “uncivilized” way.

Elias also points out that the more civilized a society becomes, the more sensitive it is to behaviors considered improper. This creates a paradox: as internal conflict decreases, tensions may shift to conflicts between civilizations. Individual self-control and dependence on the State come at a cost—we lose autonomy and spontaneity, but gain stability and peaceful coexistence.

Immanuel Kant: Universal History & Cosmopolitan Purpose

Immanuel Kant, one of the great philosophers of the Enlightenment, argued that human history is not just a series of chaotic events, but follows a rational and moral plan toward a better society. In his essay Ideas for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose, Kant defends the idea that humanity progresses slowly but steadily toward a state where reason, freedom, and universal justice prevail.

According to Kant, human beings do not reach their full development as individuals, but as a species. Reason, he says, is a capacity that improves over time and through the experience accumulated by generations. Moreover, conflicts between individuals and groups are not entirely negative; they are part of a natural mechanism that pushes us to improve our institutions and laws.

The ultimate goal is to create a global civil society, governed by shared and just laws, where everyone is free while respecting the freedom of others. Although Kant acknowledges that we may never reach a perfect society, he believes that we must act as if this goal were possible, guided by reason, moral duty, and the hope for progress.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Critique of Arts & Sciences

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an 18th-century thinker who opposed the Enlightenment’s optimistic view. In his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, he argued that the progress of culture and knowledge has not made human beings better, but has instead morally corrupted them. In his view, in the state of nature, humans were good, compassionate, and cooperative—but modern society has made them vain, competitive, and false.

He especially criticizes the role of the arts and sciences, which in his time were seen as symbols of refinement and progress. For Rousseau, however, they are a way to hide the truth behind appearances: people no longer seek to be virtuous, but to seem so. Ideas, art, and knowledge are used to gain fame, power, or approval—not to become better people.

Rousseau does not reject everything modern, but he defends the idea that a simple life, connected with nature and distant from luxury, is more authentic and virtuous. His thought anticipates Romanticism and offers a deep critique of the culture of his time, which, in his view, has lost true morality.

Montesquieu: Cultural Relativism & Separation of Powers

Montesquieu was an Enlightenment thinker who wanted to understand how different societies work. In his work Persian Letters, he uses the fictional perspective of Persian travelers who observe Europe from the outside, to show that human customs are not universal—they depend on culture, climate, religion, and history. This idea leads to cultural relativism: what is “normal” in one society may be “strange” in another.

Montesquieu is also known for his theory of the separation of powers: to avoid abuse, political power must be divided into three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—that check and balance each other. This idea was extremely influential in the development of modern democracies.

He also warns that laws should not be changed abruptly, because societies are fragile and complex. Each country has its own balance, and there is no single model that works for all. Against despotism (where one power controls everything), he defends a more balanced form of politics, based on the diversity of social influences.

Samuel Huntington: The Clash of Civilizations

Samuel Huntington was an American political scientist who, in the 1990s, proposed a highly influential theory: The Clash of Civilizations. According to him, after the Cold War, there would no longer be wars between countries based on ideologies such as communism or capitalism, but rather conflicts between major cultural and religious blocks—such as the Western, Islamic, Chinese, or Orthodox worlds.

These civilizations have different values, religions, and histories, which leads to conflict. Huntington argues that globalization has made the world smaller, and this has increased cultural tensions. Now, it’s not just about political or economic interests—identity plays a central role.

Although his theory had a strong impact on foreign policy, it was also heavily criticized for oversimplifying reality and promoting fear and division among cultures.