Social Divisions and Political Dynamics in Democracies

The 1968 Olympic Protest: A Symbol of Black Power

Tommie Smith and John Carlos were African American athletes who won the gold and bronze medals, respectively, in the 200-meter race. They received their medals wearing black socks and no shoes to represent Black poverty. The two men stood with clenched fists upraised and heads bowed while the American national anthem played. With this gesture, they sought to draw international attention to racial discrimination in the United States. The black-gloved and raised clenched fists were meant to symbolize ‘Black Power’. The silver medallist, white Australian athlete, Peter Norman, wore a human rights badge on his shirt during the ceremony to show his support for the two Americans.

Understanding Social Differences

We all experience social differences in our everyday lives. These differences can arise from two main sources:

• i. Differences by Birth

  We belong to a community simply because we were born into it. People around us are male or female, tall or short, have different complexions, or possess different physical abilities or disabilities. These are inherent differences based on the accident of birth.

• ii. Differences by Choice

  Some differences are based on our choices. For example, some people are atheists; they do not believe in God or any religion. Some choose to follow a religion other than the one in which they were born. Most of us choose what to study, which occupation to take up, and which games or cultural activities to take part in. All these lead to the formation of social groups based on our choices.

Social Divisions: Overlapping vs. Cross-Cutting

Social division takes place when one social difference overlaps with other differences. This can lead to significant societal rifts.

• Overlapping Differences

  The difference between Blacks and Whites becomes a social division in the U.S. because Blacks tend to be poor, homeless, and discriminated against. In our country, Dalits tend to be poor and landless; they often face discrimination and injustice. Situations of this kind produce social divisions when one kind of social difference becomes more important than another, and people start feeling that they belong to different communities.

• iii. Cross-Cutting Social Differences

  If social differences cross-cut one another, it is difficult to differentiate one group of people from another. This means that groups that share a common interest on one issue are likely to be on different sides of a different issue.

• iv. Overlapping Differences: Northern Ireland

  In Northern Ireland, class and religion overlap with each other. If you are Catholic, you are also more likely to be poor, and you may have suffered a history of discrimination. This overlap has fueled conflict.

• v. Cross-Cutting Differences: The Netherlands

  In the Netherlands, class and religion tend to cross-cut each other. Catholics and Protestants are about equally likely to be poor or rich. The result is that Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern Ireland, while they do not experience such conflicts in the Netherlands.

• vi. Impact of Difference Types

  Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions. Cross-cutting social differences are easier to accommodate.

Political Competition and Social Divisions

Democracy involves competition among various political parties. Their competition tends to divide any society. If they start competing in terms of some existing social divisions, it can turn social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence, or even the disintegration of a country.

• ii. Northern Ireland Conflict

  Hundreds of civilians, militants, and security forces were killed in the fight between Unionists and Nationalists, and between the security forces of the UK and Nationalists. It was only in 1998 that the UK government and the Nationalists reached a peace treaty, after which Nationalists suspended their armed struggle.

• iii. Disintegration of Yugoslavia

  Political competition along religious and ethnic lines led to the disintegration of Yugoslavia into six independent countries.

• iv. Role of Political Parties in Democracy

  In a democracy, it is natural for political parties to discuss social divisions, make different promises to different communities, ensure due representation of various communities, and make policies to address the grievances of disadvantaged communities.

• v. Social Divisions and Voting Patterns

  Social divisions affect voting in most countries. People from one community tend to prefer certain parties over others. In many countries, there are parties that focus only on one community.

Accommodating Social Diversity in Democracy

The outcome of social divisions depends on several factors:

• i. Perception of Identities

  First, the outcome depends on how people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in singular, exclusive terms, it becomes very difficult to accommodate. As long as people in Northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their differences were difficult to reconcile. Most people in our country see their identity as Indian, as well as belonging to a state, language group, or social/religious community.

• ii. Political Leadership and Demands

  Second, it depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the expense of another community. The demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was at the expense of the interests and identity of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka. In Yugoslavia, the leaders of different ethnic communities presented their demands in such a way that these could not be accommodated within a single country.

• iii. Government's Reaction to Demands

  Third, it depends on how the government reacts to demands of different groups. If the rulers of Belgium and Sri Lanka are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority communities, social divisions become less threatening to the country. But if they try to suppress such demands in the name of national unity, the end result is often quite the opposite. Such attempts at forced integration often sow the seeds of disintegration.