Seventeenth-Century Spain: Habsburg Rule and Political Crises

The Spanish Habsburgs and Their Validos

The seventeenth century was a time of profound political crisis in Spain. The Spanish kings of the House of Habsburg—Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II—are often referred to as the 'Spanish Habsburgs' or 'Austrias'. Often perceived as weak or disengaged, these monarchs largely entrusted the government to their favorite nobles, known as validos or 'privados'. The valido held a political office akin to a prime minister, advising the monarch, supervising councils, and controlling government documents.

Philip III delegated power to the Duke of Lerma, who became notoriously corrupt and wealthy. Lerma notably moved the court to Valladolid (1600-1606) and oversaw the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.

Philip IV's valido was the Count-Duke of Olivares. Olivares aimed to prevent Spain's decline, especially as the nation was embroiled in the Thirty Years' War from 1618. He sought to strengthen and centralize the monarchy by aligning all realms with the laws and institutions of Castile and by creating a standing army. However, these ambitious reforms largely failed due to strong opposition from the other kingdoms within Spain.

During the minority of Charles II, his mother, Mariana of Austria, exercised the regency. She appointed unpopular figures like the Jesuit Father Nithard and Fernando de Valenzuela to positions of power. Don Juan José de Austria, Charles II's half-brother and later valido, championed the privileges and unique characteristics (fueros) of Spain's various regions, advocating for a more federal 'pact' between them. Charles II's death in 1700 without an heir triggered the War of the Spanish Succession, which ultimately led to the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain.

The Crisis of 1640

The monarchy's immense financial needs, exacerbated by the Thirty Years' War, forced the postponement of reforms and led to desperate emergency measures, further worsening the social and economic crisis. Particularly in Castile, new taxes were imposed, public offices were sold, and royal lands were converted into manors in exchange for funds.

Consequently, social unrest and widespread opposition to the Count-Duke of Olivares' policies emerged for several key reasons:

• Peripheral kingdoms like Portugal, Aragon, Valencia, and Catalonia rejected Olivares' unitary and centralist claims.
• Members of the nobility complained about the valido's authoritarianism and perceived poor leadership.
• The popular classes denounced the economic hardship and heavy tax burden they endured.

Protests escalated into constant conflicts and rebellions across the Spanish territories, including Biscay, Catalonia, Portugal, Andalusia, Naples, and Sicily.

The monarchy faced its most critical period in 1640, when major independence rebellions erupted in Catalonia and Portugal. Olivares' popularity plummeted, and in 1643, Philip IV removed him from power. Olivares died two years later, disillusioned by the failure of his ambitious projects. However, his downfall was not enough to restore social peace, as evidenced by continued unrest and transgressions from 1640 to 1668.