The Scientific Method: Principles, Language, and Reasoning

The Scientific Method and Its Limits

Scientific Language

Compare these two statements:

• Things fall to the ground.
• Every object is attracted to Earth by a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses.

Science creates an artificial language to ensure the objectivity and accuracy of its concepts, laws, and theories.

• Concepts: These are the specific terms of each science. There are three types: classificatory, comparative, and metric.
• Laws: These are basic statements of scientific knowledge, characterized by using concepts and identifying universal regularities.
• Theories: Science seeks to explain areas of reality as broadly as possible. Compact systems of interconnected laws are called scientific theories.

Scientific Explanations

A scientific explanation answers a 'why' question raised about a particular event. To be scientific, it must be understandable and clarify reality. According to the philosopher Ernest Nagel, not all phenomena require the same type of explanation. We can categorize explanations into four types:

• Deductive: The conclusion follows logically from the premises. This is typical of the natural and formal sciences. Example: Why did the pipes break? (Explanation based on freezing temperatures and water expansion).
• Probabilistic: This type relies on probability versus deductive certainty. It is characteristic of human sciences and also medicine. Example: Why does a juvenile commit a crime? (Explanation based on statistical correlations and contributing factors).
• Teleological: This explanation sheds light on the purpose or goal behind historical events or human behavior. Example: Why did Henry VIII create the Anglican Church? (Explanation based on his goals and motivations).
• Genetic: This type explains something by tracing its origin and development. It is common in history and also in the natural sciences. Example: Why does Castilian Spanish contain many Arabic words? (Explanation based on historical interactions and linguistic evolution).

The Scientific Method

A method is a relatively fixed and stable procedure, consisting of several steps or rules that allow reaching an end goal.

Deductive Method

This involves extracting a particular or concrete conclusion from general data or premises. Since the conclusion is contained within the baseline data, if these are true, the conclusion will undoubtedly also be true.

Inductive Method

This involves drawing a general conclusion from specific observations or data. After observing what happens in a large number of cases, we infer that the same will always occur for cases of the same type.

Advantage: It provides principles or laws applicable to all events of the same type.

Disadvantages: It presents serious problems. Scientists approach observation with a particular focus, looking for specific things. On the other hand, the validity or reliability of the principles achieved is also questionable. This method does not provide certainty, only probability.

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

This method combines the reference to empirical data (like induction) with the generality and consistency of deduction. It typically involves the following steps:

1. Problem Definition: Identifying and defining a problematic situation for humans.
2. Hypothesis Formulation: Proposing a potential explanation that is consistent with the scientific attitude: rigorous, neutral, and testable.
3. Deduction of Consequences: Using the deductive method to determine the logical consequences if the hypothesis were true.
4. Hypothesis Testing: Checking whether or not the expected consequences occur. This requires resorting to observation of reality and experimentation.
5. Hypothesis Refutation: When the expected consequences do not occur, then we must reject the hypothesis and restart the process by formulating a new one.
6. Hypothesis Confirmation: When the expected consequences are true, the hypothesis is confirmed.
7. Obtaining Results: A new law or theory is formulated, or a previously proposed theory is confirmed.