Science Facts & Concepts: A Comprehensive Guide
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Scientific Method
A method of procedure consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
Newton's Laws
- Things stay in motion or at rest.
- Force, mass, and acceleration are all related.
- Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Key Scientific Concepts
Fusion
The process or result of joining two or more things together to form a single entity.
Fission
The action of dividing or splitting something into two or more parts.
Energy
The capacity for doing work.
Acid
Has a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+), greater than that of pure water.
Base
A basic solution has a low H+ concentration, less than that of pure water.
pH Scale
0-6 is acidic; 7 is neutral; 8-12 is basic.
Heat
The amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference, or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter.
Sun's Age
4.6 billion years old.
Protons
Positive charge, inside the atom.
Electrons
Negative charge, outside the atom.
Current vs. Voltage
Higher voltage allows for the production of higher, more dangerous currents.
Planets in Order
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Planet Properties
Terrestrial Planets
- Small
- Few moons
- Rocky
- No rings
Jovian Planets
- Large
- Many moons
- Gaseous
- Rings
Planets in Detail
Mercury
Too small to have an atmosphere; largest variation in temperature.
Venus
Only visible at sunrise and sunset; carbon dioxide atmosphere, sulfuric acid clouds; hottest surface temperature in the solar system.
Earth
Moon Formation Theories: Moon formed at the same time as Earth; formed elsewhere and Earth captured it; split off from Earth; large asteroid hit Earth and the Moon split off.
Mars
Has two moons, probably captured asteroids; iron makes the soil/rocks red.
Jupiter
Largest of the planets; has the largest moon (Ganymede); Great Red Spot.
Saturn
Lowest density of all the planets.
Uranus & Neptune
Blue because of methane.
Pluto
Dwarf planet because it's in Neptune's orbit.
Stars
The nearest star is 4.24 light-years away.
Element Formation: Light-middle elements form in stars, heavy elements form in supernovae.
Stages of Stellar Evolution
Gas cloud, protostar, main sequence, red giant (when hydrogen fuel is gone), white dwarf, black dwarf.
Most important property of stellar evolution: Mass.
H-R Diagram
Label white dwarf, red giant, main sequence.
Geology
Layers of the Earth
Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust.
Inner Core
A solid sphere in the middle of the fluid core, such as the iron-nickel core of the Earth.
Outer Core
Composed mostly of iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle.
Mantle
The region of the interior of the Earth between the core (on its inner surface) and the crust.
Crust
The outermost layer of a planet. The crust is underlain by the mantle.
Asthenosphere
The upper layer of the Earth's mantle, below the lithosphere.
Lithosphere
The rigid outer part of the Earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.
S Waves
Secondary waves; can travel through solids but not liquids.
P Waves
Primary waves; can travel through both solids and liquids.
Magnetic Field
Generated in the outer core.
Inner core is made up mostly of iron.
Volcanic Emissions
Ash, steam, magma, small rocks.
Convection Currents
The transfer of heat by the mass movement of heated particles into an area of cooler fluid.
Plate Tectonics
A theory explaining the structure of the Earth's crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of rigid lithospheric plates that move slowly over the underlying mantle.
Ring of Fire
A string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes, around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. Deep ocean trenches and high mountain ranges are also part of the Ring of Fire.