Scholasticism, Rationalism, Empiricism, and Materialism

Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a philosophical and theological movement conducted in schools and universities of medieval Europe from the mid-11th century until the mid-15th century. Its ideal was to integrate into an ordered system both the philosophical knowledge of Greece and Rome and the knowledge of Christian religion. Its main principles are:

1. Fundamental harmony between reason and revelation. Any apparent opposition between revelation and reason could be traced to either a misuse of reason or a misinterpretation of the words of revelation. In conflicts between religious faith and philosophical reasoning, faith was always the ultimate arbiter. During the scholastic period, philosophy served theology.
2. The problem of universals: Are universals things or words? Depending on the response, we find realistic theses (claiming they really exist) or nominal theses (saying they only exist within language).
3. The problem of demonstrating the existence of God. These can be reduced to two approaches: an "a priori" approach, whose most significant example is St. Anselm's ontological argument, and an "a posteriori" approach, whose most notable example would be the Five Ways of St. Thomas Aquinas.

Rationalism

Rationalism was a philosophical movement that developed in continental Europe in the 17th century. It posits that reason is the primary source of human knowledge. Key representatives include Descartes, Spinoza, and Pascal. Its main proposals are:

1. Reason is the only faculty that can lead humanity to the knowledge of truth.
2. The power of reason lies in its ability to derive first truths and fundamental principles from which, through implication, all others are obtained.
3. Innatism, arguing that the origin of ideas is not in experience but in understanding.
4. The method to follow is deductive, which provides valid conclusions apart from experience.

The most important historical development of rationalism took place in the 19th century within German idealism.

Empiricism

Empiricism (primarily English) was a philosophical movement started by Locke in the 17th century, replicated by Berkeley and Hume in the 18th century, and developed to its final consequences:

1. The origin and value of all our knowledge are in experience.
2. Deny the existence of innate ideas. Understanding is like a blank page where experience writes.
3. The only criterion of truth is sensible evidence.
4. Human knowledge is limited by experience, and regarding certain issues, there can only be likely acquaintance.
5. The ideal model and methods are those of experimental science: induction.
6. More importance is given to the practical and utilitarian value of knowledge than to its necessity and universality.

Its influence is felt both in the field of political philosophy and the theory of knowledge.

Materialism

For materialism, not only is matter real, but all things in nature and the human soul are fully explained based on matter and the movements that matter undergoes in space. The only cause of things is matter. There are three basic forms of materialism:

1. Mechanistic Materialism: This theory affirms that matter is the only substance. Its early defenders were Democritus and Leucippus, for whom the universe is explained based on materials and the movement of atoms themselves. This thesis reappears in the 17th century in enlightened thought, with authors like Holbach.
2. Moral Materialism: This doctrine prioritizes that the ultimate ends to which humanity should be directed, that which will bring happiness or well-being, are based on obtaining material goods.
3. Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism: This is the conception of the world maintained by Marxism, according to which there is only a material reality, but not inert and guided by mechanical laws, but one with a dynamic and evolving character, which is the result of the struggle inherent in matter and its continuous contradiction. From a Marxist perspective, history is conceived as the place where economic activity develops.