Russian Revolutions: Fall of Tsarism, Bolshevik Rise, and Civil War

The Russian Revolution

The February Revolution of 1917: The Fall of Tsarism

On 23 February 1917, a large demonstration took place in Petrograd (present-day Saint Petersburg), followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. The Tsar abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed. It was headed by a Provisional Government, which promised to call constituent elections to establish Russia as a parliamentary democracy.

The new government, dominated by bourgeois parties (Kadet and Esers), initiated a series of political and social reforms. However, they also decided to remain committed to their allies in the war. This commitment made it difficult to improve the living conditions of the population and implement the anticipated land reform.

Popular discontent grew, and the Soviets, who wanted to withdraw from the war, began to demand the dismissal of the government. The forces that had united to end the Tsar's rule began to fracture, and a duality of power emerged, challenging both the Provisional Government and the Soviets.

The October Revolution: Bolsheviks Seize Power

By then, most of the Soviets supported the Bolsheviks. Their leader, Vladimir Lenin, returned to Russia from exile and published his new ideas in the April Theses. He proposed:

• Establishing a government of worker and peasant Soviets.
• Signing a peace treaty with Germany.
• Distributing land among the peasants.
• Giving workers control of the factories.
• Nationalizing the banks.
• Recognizing the nationalities of the Russian Empire.

The Bolsheviks, with the support of the Soviets, created their own armed militia, the Red Guards, and prepared for an insurrection on 25 October 1917. The rebels occupied Petrograd, took the Winter Palace, and overthrew the Provisional Government. The revolution quickly spread to Moscow and other industrial regions.

The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, meeting in Petrograd, proclaimed a workers' government led by Lenin, which included Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin.

In November 1917, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, convened by the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks secured only 25% of the seats, despite winning a majority in cities and industrial regions. Fearing that groups opposing the revolution could take over the Duma, Lenin dissolved the Assembly, effectively ending political pluralism in the new Soviet Russia.

The new government decreed its first revolutionary measures:

• Land was expropriated for distribution among the peasants.
• Workers' committees were given control of factories.

In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany (1918), Russia accepted significant territorial losses in exchange for peace.

The Russian Civil War and Formation of the USSR

In early 1918, those who supported the return of Tsarism (landowners, army officers, and privileged groups) or the maintenance of a liberal political system (the bourgeoisie) took up arms against the Soviet government. With the help of French, British, Japanese, and American troops, the White Army confronted the Red Army, which was led by Leon Trotsky and the Bolsheviks.

The Civil War lasted three years and brought great misery to the people, who suffered food shortages and a high number of casualties. In 1921, the Red Army won the war. This conflict significantly contributed to the hardening of the Soviet regime.