The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Communism

The Russian Revolution

Domestic Policy Under Nicholas II

Nicholas II, an absolute monarch, ruled Russia with the support of the nobility and the Orthodox Church. However, several clandestine parties opposed his regime, including:

• Constitutional Democratic Party: Advocated for transforming Russia into a constitutional monarchy.
• Socialist Revolutionary Party: Sought to collectivize land ownership.
• Mensheviks: Favored a gradual transition to socialism through liberal reforms.
• Bolsheviks: Aimed to establish a proletariat dictatorship led by the communist party.

Russia's economy was primarily agrarian, with 80% of the population being peasants. Although serfdom had been abolished, the relationship between nobility and peasants remained feudal. Industrialization was underway, driven by railway construction and heavy industry, leading to the emergence of a proletariat. However, this development relied heavily on foreign investment and state intervention.

The February Revolution

On February 23rd, 1917, a general strike erupted in Saint Petersburg, accompanied by mutinies among soldiers. By February 27th, the Provisional Government, composed of moderate socialists, was formed, leading to Nicholas II's abdication on March 13th. Workers, peasants, and soldiers established soviets (councils) across the country.

Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party, returned from exile and presented his"April Theses" outlining a radical program:

• Rule by soviets
• Worker control of factories
• Redistribution of land
• Immediate withdrawal from World War I

Continued defeats in the war and escalating civil unrest culminated in a popular insurrection in Petrograd (formerly Saint Petersburg) in July. The government accused the Bolsheviks of instigating the uprising, forcing Lenin back into exile.

The Russian Civil War (1918-1921)

Anti-Bolshevik forces, including monarchists, landowners, the Orthodox Church, and proponents of a liberal political system, formed the White Army. Supported by foreign powers wary of a communist revolution, they fought against the Bolshevik Red Army in a brutal civil war.

The Bolsheviks emerged victorious, establishing a communist dictatorship. The Communist Party became the sole legal party, outlawing all others. To ensure supplies for cities and the war effort, they implemented War Communism, a system characterized by strict economic control and resource nationalization. These measures, however, led to strikes and revolts, which the government violently suppressed.