Russia's Imperial Era: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval

The Russian Empire: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval (1613-1917)

The Russian Empire, ruled by the Tsar or emperor, was an autocratic state governed by divine right. From 1613 to 1917, this vast empire covered approximately one-sixth of the planet's landmass. The Tsar held absolute power, including the authority to appoint or depose ministers and provincial governors at will.

A symbol of Russia's ambition and scale was the Trans-Siberian Railway, stretching 6,000 miles from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Similar to European industrialization, Russia's modernization efforts were largely funded by its workers and peasants, whose difficult situation sharply contrasted with that of the landowners.

In urban centers, industrialization spurred the growth of large companies in sectors like steel production, chemicals, and textiles. This development was significantly boosted by capital contributions from English, French, German, and Belgian investors. The Russian Empire thus presented a paradox: a highly industrialized nation in its urban core, yet largely agrarian and autocratic across its vast territories.

The 1905 Revolution: An Awakening

The 1905 Revolution marked a pivotal awakening for the Russian people, who had been oppressed for centuries by the Tsarist regime. People began to lose their fear and organize, launching widespread strikes and demonstrations that slowly but surely weakened a seemingly unshakable system. Vladimir Lenin's speeches played a decisive role in mobilizing popular sectors.

In response to the unrest, Tsarism was compelled to summon a parliament, the Duma, and propose reforms, including a limited extension of voting rights. By 1906, a fragile calm largely prevailed across the country. However, in 1907, the constitution was repealed, and Tsarist authority was largely restored.

Russia and the First World War (1914-1917)

In 1914, with the outbreak of World War I, Tsar Nicholas II decided Russia would participate. Recruiting workers and peasants for the war effort proved difficult due to widespread dissatisfaction. From exile, the prominent leader Lenin called for the rejection of the war, advocating for peace.

Meanwhile, Tsar Nicholas II sought to consolidate his power, dissolving Parliament and personally taking command of the war effort. The war severely impacted the Russian economy: consumer staples disappeared from markets, and inflation soared. Concurrently, the prestige of the peace movement and its advocates, particularly the Socialists, grew. Social protests escalated, and strikes erupted across the empire.

The February Revolution of 1917

On February 23, 1917 (March 8, N.S.), a massive strike involving 90,000 workers erupted in Petrograd, demanding "Bread, Peace, and Freedom." The Tsar ordered an end to the demonstrations, which resulted in approximately 150 deaths from machine-gun fire. In response to this slaughter, military detachments mutinied and joined the protestors.

The Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was re-established. An agreement was reached between the Soviet and emerging political forces, leading to the formation of a Provisional Government. Subsequently, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, and the Russian Republic was finally established, marking the end of the Romanov dynasty.

Global Economic Context: The Crisis of 1929

Between 1929 and 1939, the world experienced a major economic crisis with disastrous global consequences. This crisis erupted on October 24, 1929, on Wall Street, with a stock market crash caused by the severe overpricing of traded securities.