Russia 1917: Bolshevik Rise & Provisional Government Fall

The Provisional Government's Initial Steps

Following the February Revolution, the Provisional Government established liberal credentials, for example, by abolishing the death penalty. Russia became, in theory, the freest of all the warring states.

Challenges Facing the Provisional Government

Unmet Expectations

• Elections were postponed due to World War I.
• The Provisional Government was reluctant to embark on significant land reform, disappointing peasant expectations.

Dual Power Structure

• A major conflict, known as Dual Power, existed between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet (and other left-wing workers' and soldiers' councils across the country).

Breakdown of Law and Order

• Widespread rural disturbances occurred as peasants seized land.
• Various national groups began seeking independence from Russia.

Urban Crises

• A severe economic crisis gripped the towns.
• Workers demanded better wages and conditions.
• Lack of raw materials and transport disruptions fueled rampant inflation.

Military Disintegration

• Authority within the army, particularly among officers, began to collapse following Order No. 1 and the stresses of war.

Internal Divisions

• The Provisional Government was internally split between its left-wing members (advocating social reform) and right-wing members (prioritizing law and order).
• In May 1917, a reshuffled, more left-leaning coalition Provisional Government was formed, but divisions persisted.

Lenin's Return and Bolshevik Growth

• Support for Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik party began to grow significantly upon his return to Russia in April 1917.
• Germany facilitated Lenin's return, hoping his anti-war stance would destabilize Russia's war effort.
• The Bolsheviks were the only major party unequivocally promising an immediate end to the war.
• They sharply criticized and refused cooperation with the Provisional Government.
• They gained substantial support among factory workers and soldiers, despite initially being a minority party.

The July Days Uprising

• Prince Lvov resigned as head of the Provisional Government, leading to a reshuffled government led by Alexander Kerensky.
• Spontaneous, armed anti-government demonstrations erupted in Petrograd (the July Days).
• Bolsheviks participated in, and to some extent encouraged, these demonstrations.
• Kerensky blamed the Bolsheviks for the disturbances, portraying them as German agents and publishing alleged evidence.
• Many Bolshevik leaders were imprisoned or went into hiding; Lenin escaped to Finland.

Kerensky's Leadership Challenges

• Kerensky faced immense problems: German military advances continued, the Russian army was disintegrating, and the economy neared collapse.
• His leadership abilities were increasingly questioned as he struggled to control events.

The Kornilov Affair

• In August 1917, the Commander-in-Chief, General Lavr Kornilov, attempted a coup, ostensibly to restore order and crush radical elements, possibly with Kerensky's initial tacit approval.
• Fearing Kornilov sought a military dictatorship, Kerensky denounced him as a traitor and called on all loyal citizens, including left-wing forces and the Soviets, to defend Petrograd.
• Left-wing groups, including the Bolsheviks, united against Kornilov's advance.
• Imprisoned Bolshevik leaders were released, and the Bolsheviks played a key role in organizing the city's defense, significantly arming their militia (the Red Guard).
• Kornilov's coup failed. Kerensky's authority was severely damaged, leaving him isolated and perceived by some as weak (spineless).
• The affair dramatically revived Bolshevik fortunes, portraying them as defenders of the revolution.

Situation in October 1917

• By September-October, the Bolsheviks had gained majorities in the crucial Petrograd and Moscow Soviets.
• Leon Trotsky, as Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, played a key organizational role in preparing for a transfer of power.
• Lenin, from hiding, forcefully argued for the Bolsheviks to seize power immediately in their own name, before the scheduled Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets meeting and the upcoming Constituent Assembly elections.
• Debate within the Bolshevik party and organizational challenges initially complicated these plans.

The October Revolution (November N.S.)

• In late October (early November by the Gregorian calendar), Kerensky attempted to preempt the Bolsheviks by closing their newspapers and ordering the arrest of their leaders.
• This provided the pretext for action. Under Trotsky's direction, the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet organized the swift, coordinated seizure of key government buildings, transport hubs, and communication centers in the capital.
• The Bolsheviks launched an assault on the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government.
• The relatively low-casualty seizure of the Winter Palace became a powerful symbol of the revolution's success and the Provisional Government's collapse.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• To fulfill their promise of peace, Lenin's new Bolshevik government signed the punitive Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and the Central Powers in March 1918.
• Russia lost vast territories, population, and resources, a decision that caused significant controversy but ended Russia's participation in World War I.

Reasons for Bolshevik Success

• Provisional Government's Unpopularity: Persistent failures to decisively address land reform, end the devastating war, or solve the deepening economic crisis alienated vast segments of the population.
• Disciplined Party Organization: The Bolsheviks were a relatively centralized and disciplined party capable of decisive action.
• Surging Popular Support: Their popularity grew dramatically throughout 1917, making them a major political force, especially in key industrial centers and among soldiers.
• Control of Key Soviets: Gaining majorities in the powerful Petrograd and Moscow Soviets provided a crucial institutional power base.
• Strong and Decisive Leadership: Figures like Lenin and Trotsky provided determined leadership at critical moments.
• Clear and Appealing Slogans: Simple, powerful messages like "Peace, Land, and Bread" and "All Power to the Soviets!" resonated deeply with the desires of workers, soldiers, and peasants.