Rousseau: Historical and Philosophical Context of the 18th Century

Historical Context

In the 18th century, France maintained the structure of the Ancien Régime. The economy was primarily agrarian, with little industrial or artisanal development. The main source of wealth was trade with the Americas. Society was rigidly divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The ruling class wanted to politically exclude the Ancien Régime, as it was a hindrance to them. The bourgeoisie promoted ideas of individual liberty and legal equality. The enlightened monarchies transformed into enlightened despotism. This led to an expansion of education and science, new forms of production, and a decrease in the privileges of the clergy. This stage was characterized by the nobility and the Enlightenment.

Philosophical Context

In the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas were debated in salons and taverns. A militant and demanding school of thought emerged, questioning the existing social order. It was used to explain and construct a new philosophical system. Philosophy was expressed in essays, and the objective of the Enlightenment was to liberate citizens, making them free. A prime example of this is the Encyclopédie, which aimed to eradicate ignorance and show the path of progress. Contributors included Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire, and Montesquieu.

Philosophy and Political Thought

Enlightened anthropology held a mechanistic and materialistic view. Political thought was inspired by the English Revolution, which had ended absolutism. The legitimacy of the social contract was no longer based on divine right. Enlightenment thinkers fought against absolutism, privileges of the nobility and clergy, which they saw as the origin of corruption and social decadence. Key figures included Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire.

Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers to prevent their accumulation and thus avoid tyranny. He also fought for the abolition of slavery.

Voltaire, exiled, admired Locke's parliamentarianism. He criticized religious intolerance and political absolutism. Although persecuted, he enjoyed the favor of the powerful, who hosted him in their salons where the arts and ideas were debated.

Rousseau's Thought

Rousseau's main concerns were the search for happiness, freedom, and a critique of the individual and the optimistic idea of progress in the Enlightenment.

Against the Pessimism of Reason

Rousseau argued that reason and science had turned man into a depraved animal, as moral sentiments and faith were more important than mere technical improvements. Competition led to increased egoism. The enlightened order did not understand this critique. In his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, Rousseau argued that vanity and envy fueled a relentless race of treason and slavery. He realized the contradictions inherent in bourgeois society.

Against Individualism

Rousseau believed that society should be organized in a way that serves the community and protects individual rights. He saw the origin of moral values in the community, not in the sum of private interests.

The Idea of Man (Anthropology)

Rousseau never described a real historical state of nature. He used this concept as a tool to compare the current state of society with a hypothetical natural state of man. He believed that sentiment, expressed in self-love, causes suffering when rejected by others. Self-love is a positive sentiment when it is satisfied without seeking the harm of others. In the state of nature, man is not inherently evil, has no consciousness of his freedom, and has not yet developed language, reason, or the knowledge of vice or virtue. He feels pity for others and has physical aptitudes.

From the State of Nature to Society