Romanesque Art

During this period, religious belief was deeply ingrained in society, with a prevalent fear of the world's end. Early religious buildings were constructed as acts of appeasement to God, drawing inspiration from apocalyptic visions. Europe experienced a series of disasters, including poor harvests and widespread death, leading Christians to believe that God was displeased. This belief fueled the construction of churches and fervent prayer. The anticipated end of the world at the year 1000 did not occur, leading to the belief that the date had been miscalculated.

Art became intrinsically linked to religion, with Romanesque art emerging as an international style, fostering the creation of pilgrimage routes.

The Crusades

The Crusades aimed to reclaim holy places like Bethlehem, then occupied by the Turks, which Christians believed contributed to God's anger. Troops from across Europe mobilized to recapture these sites, with even monks in churches receiving combat training.

Patrons

Wealthy individuals of the era, known as patrons, commissioned and funded artistic works dedicated to God. These patrons gained recognition and status through their religious contributions.

Artists

Artists worked in teams, moving between countries. They had little concern for individual recognition, prioritizing the visual impact of their work over personal fame. Since literacy was limited, the visual nature of the art was crucial for conveying religious threats and rewards associated with the afterlife. Sculpture and painting were the primary mediums, prioritizing impactful imagery over aesthetic beauty.

Architecture

The term "Romanesque" (meaning "in the Roman manner") was initially derogatory, comparing the art unfavorably to ancient Roman works. Romanesque architecture originated in France and spread throughout Europe. The church served as the central focus of Romanesque art.

The Romanesque Church

Romanesque churches typically followed a Latin cross plan, with one or more longitudinal aisles (1-3-5) and a transverse aisle or transept. Some temples featured a Greek cross plan or a central plan (octagonal baptisteries or Templar churches). The longitudinal ends terminated in apses, usually semi-circular, with the central nave higher than the side aisles. Side apses, transepts, and an ambulatory (a semi-circular aisle surrounding the central apse) were sometimes added. The varying heights of the naves created a dynamic volumetric effect. The Romanesque church was essentially a composition of geometric shapes.

A second-floor gallery opened onto the nave. The set of windows in this gallery is called a clerestory. Where the nave and transept intersected, a hemispherical vault or dome on pendentives often rose. A central dome covered the transept square and was surmounted by a tower called a cimborio. Vaults were reinforced with arches at the points where they met the pillars.

Some churches used flat wooden roofs, typical of early basilicas and influenced by Muslim architecture in Spain. Vaults, formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults, were also common. Columns within the temple were often cylindrical, but more frequently, thick rectangular pillars were used. These pillars were complex to connect to the slender columns or pilasters that supported the arches of the vault.

Smaller churches often had thick walls, supported by buttresses or external brackets, that directly held the stone roof without arches or pillars.

Pilgrimage Churches

The growth of pilgrimages and the influence of the Cluniac Order, which promoted a unified liturgy across Europe, played a significant role in the standardization and spread of Romanesque architecture. The veneration of relics fueled pilgrimage routes, facilitating the exchange of people, ideas, and artistic innovations. Pilgrimage became a key factor in the globalization of the Romanesque style.

The Monastery

Monastic orders, crucial for disseminating Romanesque architectural models, spread throughout Christian Europe. Monasteries served as cultural centers, with many housing libraries and workshops where monks copied and illuminated manuscripts. Following the model of Cluny Abbey, Romanesque monasteries typically included:

• Cloister: A quadrangular courtyard with columned galleries on all four sides.
• Church: Often adjacent to the cloister's north wing.
• Chapter House: A square room built on the cloister's east side.
• Refectory: The dining hall.
• Dormitory: Communal sleeping quarters.
• Scriptorium and Library: Where monks copied and illuminated manuscripts.

Romanesque Architecture in Europe

While Western European art of the 11th and 13th centuries shared common features, distinct regional schools emerged, reflecting local historical and cultural influences.

France

Burgundy was a major center of Romanesque architecture, home to the Abbey Church of Cluny, rebuilt between 1080 and 1108. Another significant church is Sainte-Marie-Madeleine in Vézelay, with its grand central nave covered by a barrel vault reinforced with alternating colored arches, reminiscent of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba. Its impressive facade is a notable feature.

Italy

Italian Romanesque, primarily found in Lombardy and central Italy, retained classical Roman elements, creating a distinct style. Pisa, a thriving medieval republic, boasts a remarkable Romanesque complex: the Cathedral, Baptistery, and the freestanding Leaning Tower. The cathedral has five naves and a transept with three aisles. A large oval dome covers the center, while the aisles have groin vaults and the central nave a flat wooden roof (reflecting early Christian influence). The exterior is clad in alternating horizontal bands of white and dark marble. The facade features tiers of blind arches.

The Leaning Tower, built by Bonanno Pisano in the 12th century, is cylindrical and constructed mainly of white marble. Like the cathedral, it is decorated with blind arches. Its tilt began during construction but has been stabilized.

Spain

By the 11th century, Romanesque art in Spain represented Western European feudal civilization. Two main trends emerged: an earlier style in the Aragonese Pyrenees and Catalonia (11th-12th centuries), influenced by Northern Italy and Southern France; and a later style, originating in Burgundy and associated with the Cluniac order, which spread through the Camino de Santiago and influenced Western Aragon, La Rioja, Castile, and Galicia (11th-12th centuries).

Romanesque Sculpture

Romanesque sculpture, integral to medieval culture, conveyed the idea of an omnipotent God and the importance of religion in a mysterious and unknown world. It prioritized symbolism and allegory over naturalism, aiming to represent ideas and experiences rather than the physical world. Ethical beauty, conveying religious ideals, was valued over aesthetic beauty. Natural elements like animals, people, and plants were used symbolically, often distorted to convey their meaning.

Architectural elements were often decorated with sculptures. Archivolts featured geometric or human figures, while tympana typically depicted Gospel scenes, often the Pantocrator (Christ in Majesty) surrounded by the four Evangelists (represented by their symbolic animals: bull, lion, eagle, and man, forming the Tetramorph). Other common scenes included the Last Judgment and the Chrismon (a circle with two perpendicular lines and four Greek letters representing Christ).

The Portico de la Gloria in Santiago de Compostela features over two hundred figures on its three arches, jambs, mullions, and archivolts. The figures interact, displaying individualized faces, soft features, and a sense of energy and kindness.

Notable works in Spain include the reliefs in the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos, such as the Duda de Santo Tomás (The Doubt of St. Thomas). The sculptor's use of larger panels demonstrates the ability to handle complex compositions, with overlapping friezes grouping the figures. The figures' faces, positions, and sizes are repeated, except for the larger Christ and St. Thomas, who is examining Christ's wound.

Romanesque Painting

Romanesque painting, primarily decorative, adorned church walls, particularly the apse and sometimes side walls. Influenced by Byzantine miniatures and early medieval manuscripts, it expanded the miniature tradition to the larger scale of murals. Fresco was the most common technique, involving painting on wet lime and sand plaster. This method provided durability but required rapid execution. Romanesque painting lacked perspective, resulting in flat compositions and colors.

Composition was simple, with figures arranged linearly and on the same plane. Figure size indicated importance, regardless of perspective. The frontal principle dominated, particularly for important figures like Christ, the Virgin Mary, emperors, kings, saints, and apostles. Clarity and simplicity were paramount.