Roman Social Classes, Citizenship & Republican Institutions

Social Classes and Status

1 - Social classes: Roman society was divided into two principal classes: Patricians and Plebeians. Later, society was also split between free persons (patricians and plebeians) and the not free (slaves and freedmen).

The Citizen: From 149 BC, every free man who lived in Italy from the Alps to the Mediterranean coast of Africa was considered a citizen.

The citizens of Rome enjoyed all their rights without restrictions. The citizens of Italy had some restrictions on their rights.

Freedmen and slaves: Persons without the full rights of citizens were freedmen and slaves; they remained very numerous and did not disappear from Roman society. One could become a slave by birth, by being taken prisoner in war, or by judicial decree. A slave was allowed to save money that could buy their freedom and thus become a freedman, but a freedman lacked the full rights of citizenship. A slave could be freed by receiving his master's manumission or by judicial decision; after manumission, the freedman was linked to his former owner, could work on his own, and their children could be free men.

Citizenship Classes

2 - Citizens: Citizens were divided into three groups:

• The knights (Equites): Descendants of ancient cavalry. Owning a horse was a symbol of real wealth; they eventually engaged in business while maintaining social status.
• The nobles (Nobiles): Descended from former magistrates and public officials; they were engaged in politics.
• Clients (Clientes): Constituted a middle class often ruined by wars; they sought protection from the upper classes.

Magistracy, Senate and Assemblies

Monarchical power resided in the magistracy, aristocratic power in the Senate, and democratic power in the assemblies.

1 - Magistrates: Senior officials acted as judges and top executive representatives (including religious authority). The political career lasted 10 years (28, 38); reforms were introduced by the Gracchi in 31 and 43. The main offices included four principal ranks: Quaestor, Aedile (the mayoral/administrative office), Praetor, and Consul.

The Senate

2 - The Senate: Rome's most important institutional body during the Republic. It lost influence during the Empire but remained a central institution. Composition: Generally composed of former magistrates; the number varied (around 600, raised by Julius Caesar to about 900, and later restored to 600 by the censors).

Attributions: The Senate acted as a consultative organ, oversaw the national religion, controlled public finances, directed foreign policy, and guaranteed national security measures.

Sessions: Senate sessions were often private, allowing uninterrupted speech, debate of differing opinions, and recorded deliberations and votes.

Key Magistracies and Functions

• Quaestor: Responsible for finances, including payments to the army.
• Aedile (Edil): Four aediles (two plebeian, two curule): responsible for administration. (Reference to "40 Julius Caesar" appears in original sources.)
• Praetor: Initially one praetor urbanus (in 241 BC); later there were two. The praetor urbanus handled justice for citizens, while the praetor peregrinus handled legal cases involving foreigners.
• Consul: Two consuls held the highest executive power. They gave their names to the year, presided over the Senate and armies, and made key decisions.
• Censors: Two officials who conducted the census and classified citizens; typically elected every five years and often chosen from former consuls.
• Tribune of the Plebs: Originally two (in 493 BC), later expanded to ten. Tribunes defended the interests of the commoners, could convene assemblies, held the unique right to propose measures, possessed the veto, and enjoyed inviolability within Rome.