Roman Republic and Senate: Governance in Ancient Rome

The Roman Republic: Foundations of Ancient Governance

Tradition holds that after the expulsion of the Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus, the Roman Republic was established. Its first two rulers were Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. With the end of the monarchy, a republican system of government was installed, based on citizen choice. This system, which included citizen assemblies and magistrates (some with judicial roles), along with the Greek model, serves as a direct historical reference for modern democratic political systems.

The Roman Republic's governmental structure was characterized by three core principles for its magistrates: annuality (holding office for one year), collegiality (sharing power with at least one colleague), and responsibility (accountability for their actions).

Citizen Assemblies in the Roman Republic

Citizens were grouped into different types of assemblies, each with distinct functions:

• Comitia Curiata (Curia Assemblies): These assemblies proceeded from the monarchical era and held primarily ceremonial and religious functions.
• Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assemblies): Based on the division of the citizenry into 193 centuries, these assemblies were responsible for electing senior magistrates and declaring war.
• Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assemblies): Grouped citizens into 35 tribes, these assemblies elected lesser magistrates and passed laws.
• Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Council): An assembly composed solely of plebeians, which elected their own magistrates, the Tribunes of the Plebs, to defend plebeian interests.

Key Magistrates of the Roman Republic

The Roman Republic featured various magistrates, divided into senior and junior roles:

Senior Magistrates (Magistratus Maiores):

• Two Consuls: Held the most important power of command (imperium) and served as the chief executives of the Republic.
• Two Praetors: Possessed imperium and specialized in judicial matters, administering justice.
• Two Censors: Their main function was to develop a census of the citizens, assess property, and oversee public morals.
• Dictator: In cases of extreme danger to the state, all powers could be temporarily concentrated in a single dictator for a maximum term of six months.

Junior Magistrates (Magistratus Minores):

• Four Aediles: Occupied with market surveillance, street maintenance, and the organization of public games.
• Two Quaestors: Responsible for state finance and the collection of taxes.
• Ten Tribunes of the Plebs: Protected the rights of commoners (plebeians) and had the power to veto actions of other magistrates.

The Roman Senate: Power and Influence in Ancient Rome

The Roman Senate was an institution that emerged in the monarchical period but reached its full development and influence during the Republic. It comprised 300 members, typically former magistrates, who were appointed by the Censor.

Senate's Legal Instruments and Authority

To impose its opinion and authority, the Senate had two primary legal instruments:

• Auctoritas Patrum: The formal approval of the Senate, endorsing legislation passed by the assemblies.
• Consilium: The Senate's advisory role, providing counsel to magistrates and judges.

Furthermore, the Senatus Consultum (Senate's Decree) represented formal resolutions of the Senate, which, though initially advisory, often became binding in practice.

Conduct of Senate Sessions

In sessions of the Senate, a convening magistrate would preside. The magistrate would read the agenda, and then the debate on the included matters would begin. Senators would express their opinions, and those who agreed with the opinion of a particular participant would often move to their side to visibly show their support.