The Roman Republic and Empire: From Senate to Emperor

The Roman Republic (509-27 BC)

Political Changes and Institutions

During this period, Rome became a republic. Power was divided among three main institutions:

• Comitia: Comprised of all Roman citizens, its functions were to pass laws and elect the magistrates.
• Magistrates: Elected annually, these officials held specific roles:
  • Consul: Commanded the army.
  • Praetor: Oversaw justice.
  • Censor: Maintained the list of citizens.
  • Aedile: Managed the police and public works.
  • Quaestor: Handled taxes.
  • Plebeian Tribune: Defended the rights of the plebeians.
• Senate: Composed of 300 former magistrates, its functions were to approve laws passed by the Comitia, control the magistrates, and decide on foreign policy.

Initially, only patricians held political rights. The plebeians fought for 200 years to achieve the same political rights.

Territorial Expansion

Rome began to expand its territory, an achievement made possible by its highly disciplined and organized army. The expansion occurred in several phases:

1. Conquest of the Italian Peninsula.
2. Conquest of the Western Mediterranean, achieved by defeating the Hellenistic monarchies.
3. Final conquests of Egypt (30 BC) and Hispania (19 BC), leading to control of the entire Mediterranean, which the Romans called Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea").

Consequences of Expansion

• Positives: Acquisition of raw materials, land, and people.
• Negatives: Increased social conflict and a severe political crisis.

The Roman Empire (27 BC - 476 AD)

The Rise of the Empire

After the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, a civil war began between Octavian (later Augustus) and Marc Antony. In 27 BC, Octavian emerged victorious and established a new form of government: The Empire.

Pax Romana (1st-2nd Centuries AD)

The first two centuries of the Empire were a period of relative peace and stability known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). This era was characterized by:

• The maximum territorial expansion of Rome.
• Peace within the Empire's frontiers.
• The process of Romanisation, through which conquered peoples assimilated Roman culture, including the Latin language, laws, and art.

Crisis and Decline (3rd-5th Centuries AD)

The end of territorial expansion in the 3rd century AD caused a deep crisis.

Economic Crisis

With fewer slaves from conquests, prices increased while production and trade decreased, leading to the impoverishment of the Empire.

Division of the Empire

In 395 AD, in an attempt to solve the ongoing crisis, Emperor Theodosius divided the Empire into two parts:

• The Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome.
• The Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople.

This division ultimately preceded the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD.