Roman Lyric & Elegiac Poets: Catullus, Horace, Ovid

Catullus: The Learned Poet of the Poetae Novi

A group of poets known as the Poetae Novi (New Poets) initiated a trend towards more refined poetic subjectivity, prosodic and metrical perfection, and more sensitive themes such as life, death, and love. Catullus (Gaius Valerius Catullus) is considered the foremost lyric poet of this movement.

Born into a wealthy family from Verona, Catullus possessed great intellect and was called doctus poeta (learned poet) for writing with singular mastery. He delved deeply into the Alexandrian Greek tradition. His surviving work comprises 116 poems, which are typically divided into three groups based on their meter and style:

1. Nugae (Trifles - Poems 1-60): These are shorter poems, primarily in hendecasyllables or elegiac couplets. They cover various subjects close to everyday life, including deeply personal love poems (notably concerning "Lesbia"), as well as political and satirical criticisms of contemporary figures.
2. Carmina Docta (Learned Poems - Poems 61-68): These are longer, more elaborate narrative poems employing different meters. They exhibit a more careful, reflective style. Poem 64, the longest, is an epyllion (miniature epic) on the mythological theme of the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, featuring a complex structure and psychological study of its characters.
3. Epigrams (Poems 69-116): This final group consists of short poems in elegiac couplets, covering a wide range of themes, often satirical or invective.

Catullus's lyrical attitude is embodied in a language that skillfully blends refined literary language with colloquialisms and popular speech, all while showing the profound influence of his Greek models. His language reflects a wealth of tradition combined with striking spontaneity. This learned poetry introduced and perfected metrical forms that later Latin poets, such as Horace, would adopt and adapt.

Horace: Master of Lyric and Satire

Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) was born in Venusia, the son of a freedman who, according to Horace's own writings, worked as a tax collector and held other official duties. His early education took place in Rome, and he later studied in Athens, where he received instruction in philosophy and Greek rhetoric. The poet Virgil introduced him to Gaius Maecenas, a prominent patron of the arts, and from that moment, Horace's life changed. His improved financial situation, thanks to Maecenas's support, allowed him to dedicate himself entirely to literature.

Horace's works can be broadly categorized into lyrical and satirical poetry. His principal lyrical works include:

• Epodes: A collection of 17 poems inspired by the Greek iambic poet Archilochus. They often feature a sarcastic tone and address themes such as literary rivalry, political commentary, criticism of public figures, and everyday affairs. The second Epode, celebrating the joys of country life, is particularly famous and established the literary motif known as Beatus ille ("Blessed is the one who..."), which has been widely imitated in European literature.
• Odes (Carmina): Comprising four books written over approximately 10 years, the Odes explore diverse themes such as friendship, the glory of Rome, love, patriotism, and the appreciation of nature. The essence of his philosophy in the Odes is often synthesized in the famous exhortation carpe diem ("seize the day"). Horace masterfully adapted metrical models from archaic Greek lyric poets like Sappho and Alcaeus. His lyrical poetry is characterized by great psychological insight, metrical precision, and a refined vocabulary.
• Carmen Saeculare (Secular Hymn): A hymn commissioned by Augustus, composed in honor of the gods of Rome and performed at the Secular Games in 17 BC.

The most notable characteristic of Horace's style is the perfect harmony he achieved between thought and expression, often described as curiosa felicitas (studied grace).

The Roman Elegy: Poetry of Love and Longing

In Roman literature, the elegy was primarily associated with the expression of personal feelings, often centered on themes of love, longing, sorrow (dolor), and the pursuit of happiness, particularly through romantic relationships. These poems were typically written in elegiac couplets (a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter).

Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid): Elegist of Love and Exile

Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid) lived from childhood through the rise of Augustus to power and the subsequent Augustan period. He studied rhetoric in Rome and philosophy in Athens but ultimately abandoned a potential public career for poetry, his true vocation. For many years, Ovid enjoyed immense popularity and success in Rome.

However, in 8 AD, Emperor Augustus banished him to Tomis (modern-day Constanța, Romania) on the Black Sea, for reasons that remain debated (Ovid himself cited "a poem and a mistake" – carmen et error). He died in exile.

Ovid's elegiac works largely correspond to two distinct periods and attitudes in his life:

• Early Love Elegies: This period includes works like the Amores (Loves), a collection of love poems in three books, which follow in the tradition of earlier Roman elegists like Tibullus and Propertius, though often with a more playful, witty, or even irreverent tone. Other works from this phase that touch upon elegiac themes or are didactic in an elegiac mode include the Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love) and Remedia Amoris (Cures for Love).
• Elegies from Exile: These poems reflect his despair and longing for Rome. They include the Tristia (Sorrows), in five books, and the Epistulae ex Ponto (Letters from Pontus), in four books. Both collections consist of letters in elegiac couplets addressed to his wife, friends, and Augustus, detailing his physical and moral suffering and pleading for his recall or a less harsh place of exile.

Other major works by Ovid include the Heroides (letters from mythological heroines to their absent lovers) and his epic masterpiece, the Metamorphoses, a vast collection of mythological tales woven together by the theme of transformation. Ovid's language is celebrated for its flexibility, fluency, and brilliance. His verses are renowned for their vivid imagery, wit, and polished elegance.