Roman Architecture and Engineering: Enduring Structures

Roman Architecture: Core Principles

Roman architecture, while influenced by Greek models, adopted a more utilitarian and artistic approach. Unlike Greek architecture, which often aimed to exalt the power and image of the state, Roman design focused on functionality and imperial grandeur. It is characterized by a stylistic and aesthetic unity, common due to the widespread Latin language and an extensive network of roads that facilitated communication and cultural exchange across the empire.

Key Characteristics of Roman Architecture

• Significant urban development and architectural innovation.
• Increased decoration in buildings, reflecting imperial wealth.
• Emphasis on utilitarianism and solidity, evident in structures like roads, bridges, aqueducts, and triumphal arches.
• Introduction and widespread use of new techniques and materials.

Materials and Techniques

New techniques included the widespread use of the arch, vault, and dome. Roman architects also adopted Greek architectural orders with complete freedom, often combining them or introducing new ones. A notable innovation was the Tuscan order, a simplified Doric. Their greatest contribution, however, was the Composite order, which combined the Ionic volutes with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian capital. Roman architecture also introduced a novelty in verticality and perspective, creating imposing structures that conveyed power.

The immense scale of Roman buildings was made possible by new materials: stone, concrete, bricks, and irregular stones covered with mortar. Concrete, a revolutionary material, was a mixture of water, lime, sand, and pebbles, primarily used for vaults. For external surfaces, blocks were often laid in a square-based pyramid form, creating a lattice-like structure. The most important blocks were often part of ashlar masonry, sometimes featuring a convexity on the external surface, known as rustication, which lent a decorative appearance.

In contrast to the predominantly religious character of Greek architecture, Roman architecture, both military and civilian, was essentially interested in functional utility.

Roman Engineering Marvels

Roman engineering works were performed with a practical purpose, primarily to serve the needs of their vast empire and its cities.

Aqueducts: Water Supply Systems

Aqueducts were crucial for supplying water to cities. The Aqueduct of Segovia stands out as a prime example, notable for its double line of arches built with precision, using base blocks without mortar. Its granite construction, carved without mortar, exemplifies elegance and grandeur. The aqueduct consists of two superimposed arcades; the lower arcade's arches adapt to varying terrain, and its pillars thicken towards the base. The central pillar, with niches for statues, is a highlight of this remarkable urban work.

Bridges and Roads: Communication Networks

A base layer of cement formed the foundation for roads, meeting communication needs across the empire. Rivers were efficiently crossed by robust bridges, ensuring seamless travel and trade.

Triumphal Arches: Commemorative Monuments

Triumphal arches are monumental structures, a Roman creation, built to commemorate a historical event or military victory. They were strategically located at the entrance to forums, at borders, over bridges, or along public roads. They come in several types, typically rectangular or square in plan, often featuring elaborate sculptural reliefs.

Architectural Elements and Forms

The purpose of architecture is to organize and manage space. Key elements include:

• Plant (Floor Plan): Can be longitudinal (e.g., Latin cross, basilica) or central (e.g., circular, polygonal, Greek cross).
• Vertical Elements: Allow walls and roofs to rise.
  • Closed Elements: Walls of wood, adobe, stone, or various other materials.
  • Open Elements: Columns (circular, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles), pillars, pilasters, lintels, and arches.
• Cover Types (Roofs): Can be horizontal or curved.
  • Vaults: Barrel vault, groin vault, ribbed vault.
  • Domes: Hemispherical domes, often with drums and lanterns.

Roman buildings served both religious and civil functions.

Roman Sculpture: Forms and Techniques

Roman sculpture encompassed various forms:

• Freestanding Sculpture: Individual figures or groups.
• Reliefs: Medium, low, and high relief, often used on triumphal arches and columns.

Sculptors utilized various materials and employed either subtraction techniques (carving, emptying) or addition techniques (modeling, building up material).