The Rise of International Relations as a Social Science

The Coming of International Relations

The First Great Debate

The emergence of international relations as a distinct field of study is intertwined with the rise of social sciences like economics, sociology, and political science. A group of scholars, often referred to as liberals, idealists, Wilsonians, or utopians, played a pivotal role in shaping early IR thought. They championed the establishment of international institutions, the expansion of international trade, and the practice of open diplomacy guided by experts. This belief in the power of international cooperation and institutions stemmed from their conviction that war was primarily a consequence of flawed thinking by politicians and diplomats.

These early IR thinkers argued that secrecy in international affairs should be replaced with open public discourse. They viewed the balance of power system, often cited as a leading cause of World War I, as a dangerous and unstable mechanism that inevitably led to escalation and conflict. As a remedy, they advocated for international institutions to regulate state behavior and foster cooperation.

This idealistic perspective faced significant opposition, sparking what became known as the "First Great Debate" in international relations. Edward Hallett Carr, a prominent realist scholar, challenged the liberal worldview in his influential 1939 book, The Twenty-Year Crisis. Carr argued that history was not shaped by the good intentions of politicians but by the relentless pursuit of power by states. He contended that states, driven by the fundamental goal of survival, constantly seek to maximize their power. In this realist view, the dynamics of power supersede the intentions of individual actors.

Carr criticized the liberal school for overlooking the inherent self-interest of states and for assuming that national interests could be harmonized. He argued that good ideas, shared interests, and open diplomacy were insufficient to prevent war. Carr believed that liberals naively disguised national interest behind moral arguments, failing to recognize that every nation's self-interest holds equal weight.

The Role of Positivism

The development of international relations was also significantly influenced by positivism, a philosophical system that emphasizes empirical observation and scientific methods. Auguste Comte, a 19th-century philosopher considered the father of positivism, proposed that human understanding progresses through distinct stages:

1. Theological Stage: Humans explain the world through supernatural entities (gods).
2. Metaphysical Stage: Abstract concepts replace supernatural explanations.
3. Positive Stage: Scientific inquiry based on observation and experimentation becomes the dominant mode of understanding.

Comte believed that the complexity of a subject determines how long it takes for a scientific approach to emerge. Given the intricate nature of society, the development of sociology, a science dedicated to studying human social behavior, marked the culmination of the positive stage. This idea liberated political science from purely speculative philosophy, paving the way for a more empirical and data-driven approach.

During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement emerged within social sciences, advocating for a more rigorous and scientific approach to political science. Proponents of this movement argued that only observable behavior could be reliably studied, as subjective emotions and feelings yielded unreliable data. They believed that political science should emulate the natural sciences by adopting a value-free, objective, and verifiable methodology.

Positivists emphasized several key characteristics of scientific inquiry: value-freedom, verifiability, accumulation of knowledge, predictability, parsimony, and instrumentalism. They stressed the importance of operationalization in social sciences, arguing that since objective measures are often elusive, researchers must develop standardized, albeit arbitrary, measures to enable statistical and logical analysis. These ideas ignited what is known as the "Second Great Debate" in international relations, focusing on the appropriate methodology for studying international phenomena.