The Rise and Impact of Global Imperialism (1870-1914)

Causes of Imperialism

• Policies and Strategies: The possession of colonies became a yardstick for measuring the greatness of a country, coupled with strategic military and geopolitical reasons.
• Demographic Factors: Colonies provided surplus lands to send excess population, helping to reduce internal tensions in the metropolis.
• Economic Drivers: Increased production during the Second Industrial Revolution necessitated the search for raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods.
• Ideological Justifications: Belief in the superiority of the white race and its mission to "civilize" the world (often referred to as the "White Man's Burden").

Forms of Colonial Rule

Colonial powers established control through various administrative structures:

• Concessions: Commercial advantages obtained from independent countries, often granting exclusive trading rights or territorial leases.
• Protectorates: The local government was maintained, but the colonial power controlled foreign policy, the army, and the exploitation of key resources.
• Colonies: Territories under the direct sovereignty of the colonial power. These could be categorized further:
  • Position Colonies: Established primarily to control strategic territory (e.g., naval bases or trade routes).
  • Settlement Colonies: Territories where a significant foreign population settled permanently.
  • Exploitation Colonies: Territories focused primarily on resource extraction, where most indigenous people were subject to the administrative and military control of the foreign power.

Expansion of Colonial Empires

The Scramble for Africa

In 1870, Africa was an almost unknown territory to Europeans. Colonial powers rapidly aspired to create vast empires across the continent. To avoid military clashes, they gathered at the Berlin Conference (1884–1885), which formalized the partition of Africa among European nations.

Expansion into Asia and Oceania

In Asia, there were often organized states (such as China and Japan), which resisted direct colonization, leading to different forms of control, including spheres of influence and concessions, rather than outright territorial annexation.

Consequences of Colonialism

Impact on Indigenous Societies

• Political Territory: Local governments were eliminated. The arbitrary drawing of colonial borders often split or joined rival ethnic groups, leading to long-term ethnic conflicts.
• Demographic Changes: Mortality rates generally fell due to the introduction of medical and sanitary progress, leading to population growth.
• Economic Front: Indigenous populations were often forced to work for the benefit of the colonial power. Colonizers seized lands, replaced traditional subsistence crops with export crops (cash crops), and generally prevented local industrialization, although they did create necessary infrastructure (railways, ports).
• Social Area: A new social hierarchy emerged where the colonial administration controlled the government and resources, displacing traditional elites.
• Cultural Terrain: Indigenous languages and cultures were often suppressed or displaced by those of the foreign power, leading to cultural assimilation or loss.

Consequences for the Metropolis

Colonialism provided the metropolitan powers with significant advantages:

• Global superiority and enhanced political power on the world stage.
• Increased wealth derived from resource extraction and new markets.
• Acquisition of knowledge about other civilizations and geographies.