Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic: From Monarchy to Empire

The Roman Republic

From Monarchy to Republic

After the expulsion of King Lucius, Rome entered its republican period, lasting until 27 BC. The monarchy was replaced by a more complex system:

• Two Consuls: Elected annually, these two individuals shared equal power.
• Magistrates: Officials responsible for various functions, including censors, quaestors, and councilors.
• The Senate: Expanded to include commoners.

Expansion in Italy

Two major conflicts shaped Roman conquest in Italy:

• Samnite Wars (343-290 BC): Rome fought against various allied Italic peoples, ultimately achieving victory in 283 BC.
• Intervention of Pyrrhus (281 BC): The Greek colony of Tarentum sought aid from Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, against Rome. Rome's subsequent victory secured control over Southern Italy and the entire peninsula.

The Punic Wars

The Punic Wars comprised three stages:

• First Punic War (264-241 BC): Primarily a naval war, beginning in Sicily and extending to Spain, a territory contested by Romans and Carthaginians.
• Second Punic War (218-202 BC): Hannibal inflicted several defeats upon the Romans, but was ultimately vanquished at Zama by Cornelius Scipio.
• Third Punic War (149-146 BC): Fought in North Africa, resulting in Carthage's complete destruction by Scipio Aemilianus.

Internal Conflicts and Reforms

• The Gracchi Brothers' Land Reforms: Attempts to redistribute land led to social unrest.
• Social War (91-88 BC): Italian allies revolted to demand full Roman citizenship.
• Spartacus's Slave Revolt (73-71 BC): A widespread slave rebellion led by Spartacus challenged Roman authority.

Roman Government and Officials

Magistrates

Becoming a magistrate required Roman citizenship, considerable wealth, proven experience in public affairs, and an unblemished reputation.

• Consuls: Held supreme military command and were the highest authority in Rome. They presided over the Senate and assemblies.
• Praetors: Administered justice.
• Quaestors: Managed finances and public records, often accompanying armies outside Italy.
• Censors: Monitored citizens' conduct and determined eligibility for public office and social class.
• Aediles: Maintained public order, markets, and public buildings.
• Tribunes of the Plebs: Could veto actions of magistrates and convene assemblies to protect public interests.

The End of the Republic

The First Civil War (88-82 BC)

Marius and Sulla's conflict had devastating consequences, including widespread property confiscations and assassinations. Sulla became dictator in 82 BC, ruling until his death in 79 BC.

The First Triumvirate (60-53 BC)

Amidst political anarchy, three powerful figures formed an alliance: Crassus (representing the wealthy), Pompey (representing the senatorial order), and Julius Caesar (representing the populares).

The Second Civil War (49-45 BC)

Caesar's forces clashed with Pompey's, culminating in Caesar's victory at Pharsalia. Caesar also intervened in Egypt, supporting Cleopatra. His final victory came in Spain.

Dictatorship of Julius Caesar (45-44 BC)

Caesar implemented significant reforms, including the Julian calendar. He was assassinated by senators in 44 BC.

The Second Triumvirate (43-33 BC)

Following Caesar's death, Octavian (Caesar's heir), Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate. Octavian's eventual victory in 29 BC marked the beginning of Rome's imperial era.