The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies and Spanish Unification

The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies in Europe

In the 15th century, European monarchs reinforced their power by reducing the influence of the Church, nobility, municipalities, and parliaments. This era was marked by various civil wars. To consolidate their authority, monarchs implemented several key changes:

• Created a bureaucracy and a professional, centralized administration.
• Built a standing army with troops paid for and directed by the monarch.
• Increased taxes to finance their growing activities.
• Established a diplomatic system to maintain relations with other countries.

The Formation of Great Kingdoms

During this period, Europe was divided into small states, but they began to unite through marriage alliances and conquest. Four great kingdoms emerged as dominant powers: France, England, Spain, and Russia.

The Trastámara Dynasty

Enrique II of Trastámara (1366–1379)

He was known as "the one of the gifts" because of the privileges he granted to noblemen, or alternatively, as "the Fratricide."

Juan I (1379–1390)

Juan I claimed the title of King of Portugal but was ultimately defeated. His son married the daughter of the Duke of Lancaster, and they received the title of Prince of Asturias.

Enrique III (1390–1406)

His reign was marked by massacres of Jews during his childhood. Although he was unable to fight personally due to illness, his forces conquered the Canary Islands.

Juan II (1406–1454)

Juan II enjoyed reading philosophy and Latin, a period during which Spanish literature began to flourish. He was a notable patron of Villena, the Marquis of Santillana, and Juan de Mena.

Castile and Aragon in the 15th Century

The Iberian Peninsula was divided into the Crown of Castile, the Crown of Aragon, the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of Portugal, and the Islamic Kingdom of Granada. This period saw continuous revolts by the nobility seeking to maintain their influence.

The Dynastic Union of the Catholic Monarchs

In 1469, Ferdinand, son of the King of Aragon, married Isabella, sister of the King of Castile. By 1477, Isabella became Queen of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdinand became King of Aragon. While they governed the territories together, each kingdom retained its own specific laws and institutions.

Starting in 1470, they enforced a police force to control bandits and the abuses of the nobility. They increased the power of the cities and expanded their reach by conquering Muslim territory in Iberia, the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of Naples, Melilla, Oran, and the Canary Islands. By royal decree, all Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or leave Spain.

The Discovery of America and Global Exploration

In the 15th century, Europeans knew little beyond Europe and the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. The existence of India, China, and Japan had been documented earlier by Marco Polo.

The primary reasons for the new discoveries were the urgent need for trade routes (as the Turks had interrupted existing ones) and technical advances, including portulan charts, navigational instruments, and improvements in ship design. Key explorers included:

• Vasco Núñez de Balboa: Discovered the Pacific Ocean.
• Ferdinand Magellan: Reached the Mariana Islands, the Carolinas, and the Philippines.
• Juan Sebastián Elcano: Rounded the Cape of Good Hope and arrived back at Sanlúcar de Barrameda, completing the first circumnavigation.