René Descartes: Method, Doubt, and the Foundation of Knowledge

Descartes' Search for Foundational Truth

Philosophical Context and Epistemological Turn

The context involves economic, political, and artistic aspects, leading to a cutting-edge theme: the search for truth and the **epistemological turn** (a change in the relationship from subject-to-object to object-to-subject fitness). Authors analyzed the ability to know for certain limits, leading to the development of the New Science.

The Necessity of Method

There is a fundamental need for a method to advance knowledge. Descartes argued that without a proper method, it is easy to confuse truth (V) with falsehood (F). This necessity led to a deep reflection on ideas.

Cartesian Method Principles

The Cartesian method involves the rejection of Scholasticism and the acceptance of mathematics. The ultimate goal is the **mathematization of reasoning**. The purpose is to search for truth through a rigorous method and avoid errors and confusion.

Source and Inspiration

The method draws inspiration from the Padua School's hypothetical-deductive method. Descartes' approach is rational and inspired by the certainty found in Euclidean geometry.

Features of Cartesian Thought

The features of Descartes' thought include:

• Reason as the instrument of knowledge.
• Leading thought toward order.
• Mathematizing thought.
• Emphasis on order and simplicity through the **Analysis-Synthesis** process.

The Four Rules of Method

Rule 1: Evidence (Clarity and Distinction)

Accept as absolute evidence only what is perceived by intuition—a rational act that immediately sees ideas that must be **clear and distinct** (not dark and confused). The criterion of truth is based on clarity and distinction.

Clarification of Terms:

• Clear: Separate and distinct from the rest.
• Distinct: Its separate parts are clear (clear internally).

Requirements for Achieving Evidence: Do not judge before the proposition appears as evident; avoid preconceived ideas. The criterion of circumspection is used to avoid two pitfalls: Precipitation (hasty judgment) and Pre-judgment (basing conclusions on preconceived notions).

Rule 2: Analysis

Breaking down complex problems into the simplest components. This is done by the mind to reach the evidence, serving as the starting point.

Rule 3: Synthesis

Moving systematically from the simple, evident components to the complex.

Rule 4: Revision and Enumeration

Reviewing all steps and enumerating the components to ensure nothing has been forgotten or omitted.

Methodical Doubt (Doubt as a Tool)

Objective and First Step

Methodical doubt is the path to reality, aiming to establish a necessary metaphysical foundation for his system. The first step toward achieving evidence is to doubt everything.

Three Levels of Doubt

Descartes systematically applies doubt, rejecting the argument of authority:

1. Doubt of the **Senses**.
2. Doubt of **External Reality** (the dreaming argument).
3. Doubt of **Understanding** (even mathematical truths, via the Malicious Demon hypothesis).

The First Truth: Cogito Ergo Sum

The process of doubt leads to the first undeniable truth: “I think, therefore I am” (Cogito ergo sum). The act of thinking (or doubting) confirms the existence of the self. The thought never leaves the subject.

Characteristics of Methodical Doubt

Methodical doubt is:

• Voluntary: Used specifically to reach the truth.
• Universal: Doubting everything (with restrictions in practical life, ethics, and beliefs).
• Hyperbolic: Extreme and exaggerated.
• Provisional: Temporary, used as a tool, not an end state.
• Conservative: In practical application.

Methodical Doubt vs. Skepticism

The difference between methodical and skeptical doubt is crucial. Skeptical doubt (e.g., Pyrrho of Elis) is radical and leads to the **suspension of judgment** (epoché), resulting in intellectual paralysis. Methodical doubt is non-paralytic and provisional; it uses doubt as a means to reach absolute truth, not to discard it. Descartes uses doubt to commission the trial and reach certainty.

Historical Precursors to the Cogito

The concept of linking thought or sensation to existence has historical roots:

• Aristotle: “We sense or think, therefore we exist.”
• Saint Augustine: “If I am mistaken, I exist.”
• Francisco Suárez: Discussed the nature of doubt.

While Descartes' formulation is not entirely original, he establishes it as the **first principle** of his philosophy, using it to demonstrate the existence of the self and, subsequently, reality through the analysis of ideas.