Renaissance Thought: Philosophy, Science, and Politics

The Renaissance (15th-16th Centuries)

The Renaissance, spanning the 15th and 16th centuries, marked a retrieval of Greco-Latin culture and an abandonment of what was perceived as the preceding medieval culture. It was seen as a revival, ending an era considered 'barbaric' and ignorant, and beginning a time of refined culture and intellect. This transformation spread across Europe, spurred by major developments like the invention of the printing press (around 1448) and the European discovery of America (1492). This period also saw the beginnings of religious reformation and modern science. Thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Archimedes were rediscovered and studied anew.

Revival of Classical Thought

The recovery of classical texts had begun earlier, with Aristotle being translated into Latin in the 13th century, followed later by Plato. However, the Renaissance saw a renewed and intensified focus.

Platonism

The translation and study of Plato flourished, notably at the Platonic Academy in Florence. A key Platonist figure was Marsilio Ficino, who argued that the love of beauty leads to the absolute (God). Another important thinker, Pico della Mirandola, emphasized human dignity as central to all creation.

Aristotelianism

Aristotelianism saw a revival, particularly at the University of Padua. Pietro Pomponazzi was a notable figure interested in Aristotle's works on nature.

Renaissance Science

Scientific thought also drew heavily on rediscovered classical thinkers like Pythagoras, Aristarchus, and Archimedes. Pythagoras was particularly influential, proposing that the universe possesses a fundamentally mathematical structure. Aristarchus was notable for defending an early form of heliocentrism.

Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus developed a strong interest in astronomy. His seminal work, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), reintroduced the heliocentric model of Aristarchus. He defended the Sun as the center of the system and described the Earth's rotation. A key error in his model was retaining the idea of perfectly circular orbits. His ideas eventually faced opposition from the Church.

Kepler and Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler defended and refined Copernicus's theories. He is renowned for his three laws of planetary motion:

• Planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun located at one focus of the ellipse.
• The radius vector (line joining a planet to the Sun) sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
• He established a mathematical relationship defining the structure of the solar system (the square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit).

Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei initially taught mathematics but applied his knowledge significantly to astronomy and physics. Between 1604 and 1633, he faced accusations of heresy by the Inquisition for supporting heliocentrism and was eventually forced to recant. He built his own telescope, making crucial observations:

• The Moon has a rugged surface (mountains and craters).
• The Sun has sunspots.
• Jupiter has its own satellites (moons).

Galileo challenged the Aristotelian theory of natural motion, developing concepts related to gravity and inertia. He formulated the law of uniformly accelerated motion (law of falling bodies). He is considered a father of the scientific method, often characterized by four stages:

1. Observation
2. Hypothesis formulation
3. Experimental testing (choice) of hypotheses
4. Theory building

Modern Political Theory

Modern political theory emerged partly to justify the rise of nation-states and absolute monarchies.

Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli is considered an initiator of modern political science. He was interested in effective governance and the strategies required to acquire and maintain power, famously detailed in his work "The Prince". He argued that a ruler often needs to be pragmatic and strategic ('sharp' or possessing virtù), sometimes acting against conventional morality for the good of the state.