Religious Transformation and Conflict in 16th Century Europe

Biography of St. Teresa of Ávila

Her life spans from her childhood to the founding of the first convent of St. Joseph of Ávila in 1562. It is known that during her childhood, she had a fondness for chivalric romances and the lives of saints. In 1531, her father interned her as a pupil in the Augustinian convent of Santa María de Gracia, but the following year she had to return home due to a serious illness. Determined to take the Carmelite habit against her father's will, in 1535, she left home to go to the Convent of the Incarnation. She received the habit the following year and made her profession in 1537.

Around that time, she entered a period of distress and illness, which lasted until 1542. During these years, she confessed that she learned to trust limitlessly in God and began practicing the prayer method called 'recollection', described by Francisco de Osuna in his Third Spiritual Alphabet. After recovering from her illness, she began instructing a group of nuns at the Incarnation in the life of prayer and planning the reform of the Carmelite Order to restore its ancient rigor, which had been tempered by Pope Eugene IV in 1432.

Luther and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther was a key figure in the religious and political events of the sixteenth century. This Augustinian monk was a professor of Sacred Scripture at Wittenberg. He argued that grace and salvation cannot be bought with money but are freely given by God alone. He was excommunicated by the Pope in 1521. This marked the beginning of a period of intense activity.

He argued that:

• Each person is the sole interpreter of Scripture.
• Faith in God alone saves (Sola fide).
• The veneration of saints and the Virgin Mary, as well as indulgences, should be abolished.
• Only two sacraments are valid: Baptism and the Eucharist.
• The Church hierarchy holds no inherent power.

The core tenets defended by the Protestant faith include: Sola fide (faith alone), Sola gratia (grace alone), Solus Christus (Christ alone), and Sola scriptura (Scripture alone).

The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)

This was a period of renewal within the Catholic Church during the 16th and 17th centuries. It represented Catholicism's response to the Protestant Reformation. A key instrument of this Counter-Reformation was the Council of Trent. It was the longest council in history.

It addressed two main purposes:

• Clarifying the tenets of faith in response to Protestant challenges.
• Enacting reforms to eliminate abuses and improve clergy training for better Christian education.

Catholic vs. Protestant Doctrine

• Salvation: Both Protestants and Catholics agree that humans are sinful. However, Luther asserted that humans are radically powerless to achieve salvation through their own works, while the Council of Trent stated that humans, endowed with free will, achieve salvation by cooperating with God's grace through good works.
• The Church: Protestants argued that the Church's primary function is to proclaim and teach the Word, to which all Christians have direct access.

The Spanish Inquisition

It originated when civil and religious authorities collaborated in identifying heretics. In Spain, organized by Fray Tomás de Torquemada, it harshly persecuted conversos (Jewish converts to Christianity) suspected of secretly practicing Judaism. This institution has become historically synonymous with intolerance.

Interrogations often involved torture. Sentences varied widely and included:

• Exile
• Death
• Fines
• Imprisonment
• Wearing the sanbenito (a penitential garment).

It remains difficult to comprehend how such actions could be carried out in the name of the Church.

The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492)

Anti-Jewish sentiment intensified during the late Middle Ages. Jews were often blamed for the death of Christ. During the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain's Jewish population was estimated between 150,000 and 200,000. Jews faced harsh persecution from the Inquisition, which viewed them as a threat to Catholic unity. Discriminatory measures were enforced, such as requiring them to wear distinctive badges. They were also barred from certain professions. Ultimately, they were expelled from Spain in 1492.

World Evangelization Efforts

A significant period of global missionary expansion began. However, many encomenderos (holders of land grants) exploited the indigenous populations. This exploitation often undermined the missionaries' efforts.

Missionaries faced immense challenges, including:

• Vast distances
• Diverse languages
• Unfamiliar cultures

Some believed the best way to instill faith was to eradicate indigenous cultural and religious practices and baptize people into the Catholic faith with minimal instruction or understanding.

Positive aspects included missionaries:

• Learning native languages and cultures
• Teaching crafts and skills
• Sometimes denouncing the abuses committed by colonizers.

Vocabulary

Converso: A person, particularly a former Jew or Muslim, who converted to Christianity in Spain or Portugal, especially during the 14th and 15th centuries.