Old Regime Society: Economy, Estates, and Absolute Monarchy

The Old Regime: Economy and Society

Agriculture and Economic Life

During the Old Regime, agriculture was the most important source of wealth. Only a small portion of land could be considered private property; the rest was linked to the Church, the nobility, or the Crown. Land held by nobles was known as seigneurial land, while other parts were divided into small plots for peasants.

As agriculture was primarily for subsistence, there was no specialization, and trade was scarce. Crops were grown in open fields, utilizing fallow periods for cereal production. Livestock production was insufficient, and harvests often failed, leading to periodic crises of subsistence.

Demographics and Urban Life

Demographics during this period were characterized by little population growth. Malnutrition, poor hygiene, and inadequate medical care led to elevated mortality rates. While the birth rate was high, the average life expectancy for adults was around 45 years.

In the cities, craft production was driven by guilds. During the eighteenth century, manufactures began to spread. These establishments were often subsidized, driven by private initiative or the state, and produced various goods, including luxury items.

Communications and Transport

The communications network was sparse; only royal roads were kept in good condition. The most common vehicle for travel was the diligence (stagecoach). The second half of the century saw significant maritime navigation, though it remained very slow.

Social Structure: The Society of Estates

Society was organized into estates, determined by birth, contrasting with social classes based on wealth.

• Clergy: Responsible for spiritual care and prayer, ensuring God's protection.
• Nobility: Tasked with fighting and protecting the community from adversaries.
• Third Estate: Comprised of those who produced material goods.

The Privileged Estates

The privileged estates did not pay taxes and enjoyed significant economic and social advantages.

The Clergy

The first privileged estate was the clergy. Their income came from their property and tithes.

• High Clergy: Bishops, abbots, and high-ranking canons.
• Low Clergy: Monks, priests, and parish priests.

The Nobility

The second privileged estate was the nobility, who enjoyed economic and fiscal concessions, along with honorable status.

• Court Nobility: Wealthy and powerful, often residing at court.
• Provincial Nobility: Often less wealthy, with influence in local regions.

The Unprivileged: The Third Estate

The Third Estate constituted the majority of the population, encompassing diverse social sectors:

• Bourgeoisie: The most dynamic group, including rentier bourgeoisie (living off investments) and commercial bourgeoisie (involved in business).
• Urban Classes: Manual workers in the cities.
• Farmers: Could be tenants or landowners.
• Serfs and Wage Earners: Living under the manorial system.

Monarchical Absolutism and Divine Right

Monarchical absolutism was based on the divine right of kings, asserting that the monarch's authority came directly from God.

1. The monarch's authority was believed to be divinely ordained.
2. The state was controlled by the monarch, who held absolute power.
3. Arbitrariness was common, and no law fully protected subjects from despotism.
4. The main body of government was the Council of State.
5. Administration was in the hands of provincial governors and mayors.
6. A body of officials and bureaucrats was responsible for executing royal decrees.
7. The monarch's power was limited only by divine law, natural law, and fundamental laws of the kingdom.
8. One limitation on royal power came from parliaments (or Estates-General), institutions that brought together the three estates.