Old Regime Crisis, Enlightenment, and Liberal Revolutions

The crisis of the Old Regime was influenced by several key factors and ideas, leading to significant political and social transformations.

Influences on the Old Regime's Crisis

The Enlightenment's Impact

The ideas of the Enlightenment challenged absolutism. They proposed that sovereignty resides in the people, particularly the emerging bourgeoisie.

Division of Powers in Practice

Putting Enlightenment ideals like the division of powers into practice aimed to replace the nobility as the dominant group, guiding liberal or bourgeois revolutions.

Early Liberal Revolutions

The first liberal revolutions included the American Independence, the French Revolution, and movements in Europe and the Spanish colonies in America.

Principles of the New Liberal Order

Liberal Politics

Liberal politics were founded on national sovereignty and the division of powers to defend human rights. The constitution and a parliamentary system were established to protect the nation-state, defend rights, and create more democratic institutions.

Societal Shifts

Society transitioned towards a model based on wealth and property, fostering a more open social structure, often referred to as a bourgeois society.

Economic Liberalism

Economic liberalism advocated for free trade and production, leading to the disappearance of state control over commerce. The economy was to be governed by the law of supply and demand, promoting capital accumulation, industrialization, and international markets.

The American War of Independence

During the War of Independence, the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia organized common resistance. Following punitive laws enacted by Great Britain, the war broke out in April. George Washington was elected commander-in-chief. The Treaty of Versailles (1783) formally recognized the independence of the United States.

New Political Organization: The U.S. Model

Foundational Political Documents

Key political documents emerged, such as the Declaration of Rights of Virginia, the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia), and the U.S. Constitution with its successive amendments, establishing a federal republic.

U.S. Government Structure

The political organization established a system with distinct branches:

Executive Branch

The President, elected every four years, and their secretaries carry out governmental duties.

Legislative Branch

This is a bicameral system with the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the U.S. Congress. Legislative bodies and state governors also make legislation, manage budgets, and critique government actions.

Judicial Branch

The Supreme Court and federal judges are responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring their enforcement.

Causes of the French Revolution

Social Factors

Social causes included:

• Opposition from the privileged classes to reforms that would require them to pay taxes.
• The desire of the bourgeoisie to control political power, sometimes using grassroots groups as shock troops to achieve their ends.
• Shortages of basic necessities, such as food, and popular riots, exacerbated by enormous state spending that increased public debt.