Regenerationism in Spain: Early 20th Century Crisis

In 1902, Alphonse XIII (son of Maria Cristina) ascended to the throne and supported the most conservative sectors. The two dynastic parties, taking turns in government, divided due to changes in their leadership. Consequently, caciques (local political bosses) lost influence. In this context of political instability, the country faced several social problems, including:

• Increased social crises (landowners vs. workers)
• Protests against the Church (anticlericalism expanded)
• Criticism of the army
• Growth of the workers' movement (mainly in Catalonia and the Basque Country)
• The Moroccan problem

Furthermore, social and political opposition developed, albeit without immediate success. These opposition groups included:

• Carlists
• Republicans
• Workers' movements, including socialists (PSOE and UGT) and anarchists (FAI and CNT)
• Intellectual opposition
• Nationalists and regionalists

The Moroccan Problem and Barcelona's Tragic Week

The Moroccan problem deserves special mention, as it led to Barcelona's Tragic Week. International powers agreed at the Algeciras Conference to divide Morocco between France and Spain. Moroccans, however, desired independence from Spanish rule. Consequently, their tribes (the Riffs) attacked Spanish forces. In Barcelona, a general strike was called when reservists were mobilized for the war in Morocco. Anticlerical sentiments quickly surfaced, and people set fire to churches and convents. The subsequent government repression was harsh. Ferrer Guardia, a prominent educator, was executed, accused of instigating the disturbances—a false accusation, as the true agitator was Lerroux, who escaped. The repression generated widespread criticism of the government. This culminated in a general strike and, more broadly, the Annual Disaster.

The 1917 Crisis

Later, an unequal distribution of the benefits from an economic boom, coupled with rising prices, led to the 1917 Crisis. This crisis can be analyzed on three levels:

• Military Crisis: Discontent arose because those who participated in the war were promoted, while others felt this was unfair. They formed Defense Juntas.
• Parliamentary Crisis in Catalonia: Catalonia attempted to take control of the country and organize new elections.
• Social Crisis: A general strike was called against the war, and the Defense Juntas supported the repression against the strikers.

Observing the government's reaction, the Defense Juntas and the Parliament abandoned their demands, effectively ending the crisis.

The Rise of Primo de Rivera

This period of turmoil concluded when Primo de Rivera seized the opportunity and staged a coup d'état in 1923.