The Protestant Reformation: Key Figures and Doctrines

Precursors to the Reformation

Early criticisms foreshadowed the Reformation. The Western Schism (or Great Schism), where rival popes resided in Rome and Avignon (France), weakened papal authority. Figures like John Huss also challenged the Church, advocating for reforms such as translating the Bible into vernacular languages; Huss was ultimately executed for his views.

The Religious Reformation Begins

The definitive break within the Catholic Church occurred in the mid-16th century. One major catalyst was Pope Leo X's promotion of indulgences – payments solicited for the forgiveness of sins. This money was intended, in part, to fund the completion of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These practices provoked strong opposition.

Martin Luther and Lutheranism

Martin Luther spearheaded major protests against the Church. In 1517, he famously nailed his 95 Theses to a church door in Wittenberg, criticizing various Church practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. Supported by many German people, Luther argued that faith alone (sola fide) was necessary for salvation, regardless of sinful actions. This marked the beginning of a major religious upheaval in the 16th century. Some historians prefer the term 'schism' as it emphasizes the split rather than a fundamental change within the Catholic Church itself.

The Church excommunicated Luther when he refused to recant his statements in the 95 Theses. Lutheranism subsequently spread, notably into parts of Germany, Denmark, and Norway.

John Calvin and Calvinism

John Calvin became a prominent Protestant theologian and critic of the Catholic Church. As the Reformation spread to France, persecution forced Calvin to flee to Switzerland. There, he developed Calvinist doctrine, centered on the concept of predestination. This doctrine held that God had predetermined an individual's fate – salvation or damnation – before birth, irrespective of their actions during life.

Henry VIII and Anglicanism

In England, King Henry VIII sought an annulment of his marriage, which the Pope refused. In response, Henry established his own church, the Church of England (Anglicanism), with himself at its head. This break allowed him to grant his own annulment and remarry. Initially, Anglicanism retained many Catholic traditions, but over time, it incorporated elements from both Lutheranism and Calvinism.

Causes of the Reformation

• Widespread dissatisfaction with Church corruption and practices like the sale of indulgences.
• The desire among many, including the middle class and peasants, for a more direct relationship with God, without perceived necessary intermediaries.
• Support from monarchs and princes who saw opportunities to increase their own power and wealth at the expense of the Church.
• The influence of Renaissance humanism, which emphasized original sources and critical thinking.

Consequences of the Reformation

• The end of Western Europe's religious unity under the Catholic Church.
• The translation of the Bible into various vernacular languages, increasing literacy and access to scripture.
• The use of local languages instead of Latin in church services in Protestant regions.
• Numerous and devastating religious wars across Europe (e.g., the Thirty Years' War).
• An increase in the power of secular rulers (monarchs and states) relative to the Church.
• The Catholic Church initiated its own internal reforms (the Counter-Reformation).