Primo de Rivera Dictatorship and Spain's Reformist Biennium 1923–1933

Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1931)

The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1931) was a military regime that began after a coup d'état on September 13, 1923, supported by King Alfonso XIII. The coup was driven by political instability, corruption, social unrest, and the weakness of the parliamentary system, worsened by the Disaster of Annual (1921) and the Picasso Report, which blamed high-ranking military officials and the king for the defeat in Morocco.

Primo de Rivera suspended the 1876 Constitution, dissolved Parliament (Cortes), and banned political parties and labor unions, establishing an authoritarian government. His regime promoted public works, modernized the economy, and created state-owned companies such as CAMPSA and Telefónica. He also ended the war in Morocco with the victory at Alhucemas (1925).

However, the 1929 economic crisis weakened his government and increased opposition from intellectuals, workers, and military officers, who withdrew their support. In January 1930, he lost the king's backing and resigned, going into exile in Paris, where he later died. His dictatorship failed to solve Spain's problems and further weakened the monarchy, leading to the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931.

Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)

The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933) was the first phase of the Second Spanish Republic, led by Manuel Azaña, with the goal of modernizing Spain. A new Constitution was approved, establishing a democratic and secular republic that recognized civil rights, regional autonomy, and women's suffrage.

The government implemented key reforms in five main areas:

• Land redistribution to support peasants;
• Regional autonomy for areas like Catalonia;
• Military reduction to weaken the army's political influence;
• Education expansion to improve literacy;
• Women's rights to promote equality in voting and work.

However, these reforms faced strong opposition from the Church, landowners, and the military, who saw them as a threat to their privileges. At the same time, some left-wing groups, like anarchists, were frustrated with the slow pace of change. The government lost support after the Casas Viejas uprising (1933), where police violently suppressed a peasant revolt.

Weakened by social unrest and political divisions, the government called for early elections in November 1933, resulting in a conservative victory and marking the end of the Reformist Biennium. Despite its failure, this period laid the foundation for future social and political changes in Spain.